Natural goods and services
Agriculture today
Agricultural development limitations in the Central Selva
Sectoral problems and conflicts
Bibliography
Because farming is the principal means of support of most of the people living in the Central Selva, and because feeding its growing population has become a matter of critical concern for Peru as a whole, questions of land use for agriculture go to the very heart of the problems encountered by those who would transform the humid tropics. It is not enough to cut and burn trees, plant seeds, and expect to have a harvest. Agriculture in the Central Selva as elsewhere in the humid tropics requires a process of integrated and coordinated activities at the farm level and their interaction with regional and national economies and with other development sectors.
Soil
Peruvian Amazonia has a limited supply of soils that are well-suited for continual agricultural production. According to ONERN (1981) only 6 percent of the soils in the Selva, or 4.6 million hectares out of a total of 75.7 million, are suitable for annual and permanent cultivation; while 7.5 percent (5.7 million ha), are potential pastures. More than 84 percent (63.5 million ha) of the total land area is classified as being best suited for forest exploitation and protection. Unfortunately, little information is available concerning human settlement patterns on these lands, the amount of land being abandoned or left fallow because of soil and pasture deterioration, and on the underutilization of these soils through extensive livestock grazing.
The best soils are found on terraces near rivers and most of these areas are already planted in annual crops (corn, manioc, beans, and vegetables) and permanent crops (citrus fruits, bananas, papaya, and avocado). Some cleared forest lands yield harvests once or twice a year through the traditional system of cultivation, which takes place until crop yields diminish from the lack of soil nutrients and competition from weeds and pests. Once the lands become infertile, they are abandoned and new farmland is cleared from the forest. This system of "shifting agriculture" is practiced by native communities and also by the majority of colonists in Peruvian Amazonia.
Farmers with access to capital have established perennial crops, such as citrus, coffee, cacao, and other tree fruits, which maintain soils on slopes by providing continuous plant cover. Although permanent agricultural production such as this requires extensive management and investment in fertilizer and pesticides, its yields are higher than those of shifting agriculture. Permanent agriculture is not only an efficient use of land, it also helps stabilize rural populations by producing continual employment, and food that can be consumed domestically or sold in regional markets.
When good agricultural soils are scarce, and the existing soil resources underutilized and badly managed, soil erosion and reduced agricultural production inevitably occur. For example, grazing livestock on fertile alluvial soils is a low-intensive land use when compared with cultivation of high value crops. Equally inefficient is the system of planting annual crops on steeply sloping land, which will produce diminishing yields, eventual abandonment of the site, and a search for new lands to clear. But conflicts over the use of such lands are not easily resolved, being related to regional socioeconomic factors that are influenced by land tenancy patterns, market conditions, and access to roads.
Many of the soils in the humid tropics have little agricultural potential because they are highly acid and contain toxic quantities of aluminum and low levels of phosphorus, potassium, and organic matter (Sanchez, et al, 1982). What nutrients they do have are obtained through burning of vegetation and decomposition of organic matter. The nutrients are used up when fast-growing annual crops are planted and when pastures are established in recently-burned areas (Figure 9-1).
The mechanisms governing nutrient cycling in humid tropical forests are located in the upper soil levels and in the biomass. When organic material in the soil decomposes, its nutrients are absorbed and recirculated through the natural vegetation (Table 9-1). Under continuous vegetative cover or with systems of permanent cultivation, few nutrients are lost. But if the vegetation suffers continuous disturbance, as in annual cropping, nutrient levels are reduced by leaching, soil erosion and the harvest itself, making the addition of fertilizers necessary.
If production is to be maintained in the humid tropics, therefore, crop rotation and new cropping systems will be required. Examples of these systems are those that use nitrogen fixing legumes to help sustain production, including annual crops such as beans and peanuts in association with rice, corn and manioc, tree legumes (Inga sp.) in coffee and cacao plantations; and forage legumes (Calopugnium sp.) with natural pasture (Paspalum natatum).
Water
Water excess is often as detrimental to plant growth as is water scarcity. Water excess results in reduced oxygen levels in the root zone and water deficiency creates problems for plant metabolism, poor nutrient circulation, high temperatures, and dehydration. Both sets of conditions reduce growth and potential yields. In the humid tropics, only crops with a high market value (unhusked rice, bananas for export, oil from African palm) are mechanically irrigated and drained. For the rest, the most successful cultivation systems are adapted to water regimens dictated by climatic and soil factors.
FIGURE 9-1 - TENDENCIES IN SOIL FERTILITY UPON CONVERSION FROM FOREST TO PASTURE
For example, natural marshes serve as buffer zones for adjacent agricultural lands, regulating water levels and absorbing rising waters. In these flood plains the sediments that are annually deposited along the banks of the large rivers are excellent for growing such short-cycle plants as rice, corn, beans, or jute (Table 9-2). When annual crops are grown on these fertile soils, they can be planted and harvested between normal flooding cycles.
Lesser Forest Products
Although lesser forest products are not actually agricultural products, the forest ecosystems adjacent to many cultivated fields provide various natural supplements to rural economies. Thus, native fruits, resins, natural pigments, medicinal plants, and natural palm and reed fibers are collected in great amounts and are sometimes processed during times of little agricultural activity. Historically, Peruvian Amazonia has supplied international markets with products such as rubber, bar-basco, zarzaparillo, and rosewood. The demand for these products varies according to cost increases due to increasing distances between forests and shipping ports. Demand may also vary because of competition from other parts of the world where transport costs are less and communication is more efficient. The social value of these products is difficult to estimate since native communities and colonists that gather and process them are dispersed throughout a large area for which commercial data are not available.
In 1980 the total amount of cultivated land and pasture in the agrarian districts of San Ramon and Satipo was estimated to be 70,426 hectares, with an agricultural production value of 15,276,63 thousand soles (Table 9-3). This figure represents a 25 percent increase over 1973, as a result of road construction in the Perene Valley. Moreover, preliminary sectoral comparisons between the Central Selva and the rest of Peru give an idea of the Central Selva's importance in the national economy (Table 9-4), but tell nothing about the area's production potential nor about predicting the reductions in yield and land use efficiency if agroecosystems are improperly managed.
Table 9-1
NUTRIENT CYCLES IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY SYSTEMS
|
Function |
Temperate Forests |
Amazonian Forests |
Implications for Tropical Forest and Agricultural Lands |
|
Location of nutrients, cycle mechanisms |
In the soil |
In biomass covering the soil |
When the biomass decomposes or when it is continually exploited, yields diminish. |
|
Nutrient cycle index3 |
Not available |
High (0.7) |
Few nutrients are lost when there is continuous plant cover as exists in forests or in permanent cultivations. |
|
Cation exchange |
High |
Low |
The majority of soils in the humid tropics cannot support sustained production without fertilization. Soils with high CEC experience less severe nutrient loss because of leaching and a better response to fertilization. |
|
Nutrient cycle duration |
The processes are slow because of limited humidity and/or temperature |
Successional plants rapidly absorb nutrients after forests are cleared |
If soils remain continually covered with fruit or wood-producing trees, few nutrients will be lost. |
|
Length of seed dormancy period |
Long |
Short |
Natural reforestation depends on seed sources close-by, since seeds will not be transported over long distances. |
a. This index compares the quantity of "recycled" nutrients with the total quantity circulating through the system. A high cycle index (around 1.0) means that all of the nutrients in the system are "recycled" and are not lost.b. A low CEC means that there exist few negative changes in the soil capable of retaining nutrient cations such as calcium, potassium, and magnesium.
Source: Jordan, C.F. (1982).
Table 9-2
SUGGESTED ANNUAL CROPS TO BE PLANTED ON FLOODPLAINS
|
Common Name |
Scientific Name | |
|
Cereals | ||
|
|
Corn |
Zea maiz |
|
|
Rice |
Oryza sativa |
|
Legumes | ||
|
|
Beans |
Phaseolus sp. |
|
|
Soybeans |
Glycine max |
|
|
Chick-peas |
Cicer arietinum |
|
Peanuts |
Arachis hypogaea | |
|
Fibers | ||
|
Ramie |
Boehmaria nivea | |
|
Jute |
Corchorus capsularis | |
|
Urena |
Urena sp. | |
|
Tubers | ||
|
|
Manioc |
Manihot esculenta |
Almost all farms, regardless of size, are labor-intensive. Such a practice is probably the most appropriate technology for these hilly areas with a high percentage of permanent cultivation. In 1976 fertilizers were used more in Chanchamayo (62 kg/ha) than in Satipo (35 kg/ha) and Oxapampa (33 kg/ha), primarily because the citrus plantations are older and more numerous (Table 9-5). This indicates not necessarily "progress," but rather a vigorous fertilizer industry, dating from the 1950s (Recharte, 1982).
Today coffee is the principal income crop: the Central Selva produces 25 percent of the coffee of Peru. Coffee production has remained stable in recent years despite fluctuating market prices. Yields vary from 400 to 600 kg/ha, although they could increase with better management. Diseases affecting coffee plantations, such as broca (Hypothenemus hampei) and roya amarilla (Hemileia vastatrix), can be caused by large extension or excessive density of the crop; intensive cultivation can also be counterproductive to obtaining high yields. Coffee is planted on all types of land, and little erosion or soil loss occurs because the coffee trees simulate natural forest conditions, providing shade and fixing nitrogen.
Citrus fruits - oranges, tangerines, and grapefruit - are the second most important crop in the area. Yields vary from eight to 13 metric tons per hectare. In spite of relatively intensive management, fertilization and disease control, losses from pests have forced farmers to replant in affected areas. Fresh fruit is sent to markets in Lima, while surpluses produced during periods of abundance are locally distributed.
Other important fruits, in terms of area planted, include avocados, papaya, and pineapple. Avocado production is limited because of the pest Phytophthora, which attacks the roots and flourishes in poor drainage conditions. Papaya is grown to provide income while citrus trees are being established. In the last two years, however, the total area planted has diminished because the pests have shortened productive tree life to less than two years. Chemical control is expensive and ineffective, and genetic resistance to pests has yet to be developed. Some farmers replant papaya plantations every one or two years as a practical solution to the pest problem.
Recently, small-scale plantations of a crop called carambola (Averroha carambola) has been planted near Satipo. This fruit is unknown outside of Peru, but it is being well-received in Lima markets and its future appears promising. Bananas, breadfruit, passion fruit, and chirimoya are usually produced for local and international markets.
A major fruit-processing plant near La Merced enables local farmers to sell their fruits, and connects the regional agricultural economy to national and international markets (for example, passion fruit juice concentrate is shipped in quantity to Europe). Production increased from 2,029 tons in 1976 to 7,836 tons in 1980. Its capacity has been estimated to be 9,000 tons a year. Farmers also benefit from several small citrus fruit packing plants in the Chanchamayo area which wash and pack the fruit before sending it to Lima. The presence of these establishments has encouraged the development of permanent fruit plantations by both large and small farmers. Because fruit trees are one of the few species in the humid tropics that can be cultivated on slopes, it has been possible to grow them relatively near the fresh produce markets and Lima processing centers.
Central Selva Land Use
Present land use patterns reflect soil and climate limitations, available capital, proximity to markets, transport facilities, tenancy patterns, and regional cultural traditions. Four general types of land use and human settlement patterns are found in four development axes in the Central Selva (Table 9-6).
Table 9-3
ESTIMATED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN THE SAN RAMON AND SATIPO AREAS IN 1980
|
Permanent Crops |
Area |
Production |
Yield |
Price at the Farma |
Gross Value of Productiona |
|
Coffee |
38,100 |
18,570 |
0.49 |
544 |
10,109,460 |
|
Citrus Fruits |
4,697 |
44,345 |
9.4 |
22 |
968,760 |
|
Cacao |
201 |
40 |
0.2 |
385 |
15,400 |
|
Avocado |
1,355 |
7,569 |
5.6 |
38 |
288,430 |
|
Other Fruits |
140 |
335 |
2.4 |
40 |
13,360 |
|
Mango |
25 |
140 |
5.6 |
30 |
4,200 |
|
Annatto |
139 |
48 |
0.35 |
167 |
8,000 |
|
Sugar Cane |
87 |
792 |
9.1 |
10 |
7,920 |
|
Passion Fruit |
175 |
875 |
5.0 |
35 |
30,625 |
|
Cocona |
69 |
345 |
0.2 |
25 |
8,625 |
|
Others |
48 |
93 |
1.9 |
20 |
1,850 |
|
Totals |
45,046 |
|
|
|
11,456,630 |
|
Annual Crops | |||||
|
Corn |
4,003 |
9,152 |
2.3 |
39 |
357,970 |
|
Bananas |
4,374 |
25,549 |
5.8 |
14 |
352,340 |
|
Manioc |
1,295 |
15,819 |
12.2 |
22 |
348,018 |
|
Rice |
490 |
578 |
1.8 |
62 |
36,120 |
|
Tobacco |
278 |
2,803 |
0.1 |
30 |
84,090 |
|
Beans |
258 |
243 |
0.9 |
135 |
32,860 |
|
Papaya |
1,705 |
27,940 |
16.4 |
20 |
544,960 |
|
Soybeans |
91 |
112 |
1.2 |
108 |
12,200 |
|
Taro |
82 |
333 |
4.1 |
10 |
3,330 |
|
Pineapple |
1,577 |
25,123 |
15.9 |
15 |
380,170 |
|
Tubers |
72 |
577 |
8.0 |
58 |
33,620 |
|
Ginger |
84 |
478 |
5.7 |
35 |
16,730 |
|
Vegetables |
4 |
41 |
10.3 |
20 |
820 |
|
Totals |
14,313 |
|
|
|
2,203,228 |
|
Grasses | |||||
|
Elephant Grass |
5,888 |
362,280 |
61.5 |
2.5 |
903,840 |
|
Molasa Grass |
1,695 |
101,700 |
60.0 |
3 |
305,100 |
|
Jaragua |
1,888 |
113,280 |
60.0 |
2.5 |
283,200 |
|
Kudzu |
27 |
810 |
30.0 |
2.5 |
2,025 |
|
Others |
1,361 |
40,830 |
30.0 |
3 |
122,490 |
|
Totals |
10,859 |
|
|
|
1,616,655 |
|
TOTAL |
70,218 |
|
|
|
15,276,513 |
a. In sales of 1980.
Source: MAA, Peru (1982).
Table 9-4
ECONOMIC COMPARISON BETWEEN THE CENTRAL SELVAa PERUVIAN AMAZONIA, AND THE ENTIRE COUNTRY OF PERU
|
|
Selva Central |
Peruvian Amazonia |
All of Peru |
|
Cultivated area (hectares)b |
70,426 |
666,724 |
2,470,718 |
|
Estimated Value of Agricultural Productionc (thousands of soles) |
15,276,513 |
|
39,883,600 |
|
Estimated value of forest productiond (thousands of soles) |
3,927,091 |
35,777,387 |
38,311,153 |
|
Estimated value of lesser forest products |
26,768 |
2,087,918 |
2,511,570 |
a. Data for the Central Selva only include the San Ramon and Satipo agrarian districts.
b. MAA, 1980.
c. MAA, 1982 (annual and permanent crops, grasses, and forests).
d. Lesser forest products include resins, fibers, pigments, medicinal plants, oils, and native fruits.
Table 9-5
CENTRAL SELVA FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION IN 1976
|
Region |
Area Planted |
Fertilizers |
Average Fertilizer Application |
||
|
N |
P2O5 |
K2O |
|||
|
Chanchamayo |
33,225 |
695 |
497 |
881 |
62 |
|
Satipo |
20,743 |
245 |
239 |
234 |
35 |
|
Oxapampa |
12,981 |
151 |
141 |
140 |
33 |
Source: Recharte, 1982
Development in the San Ramon - La Merced axis in the Chanchamayo Valley was based historically on large coffee plantations and on one sugar refinery. During the 1969 agrarian reform, however, a large portion of these lands was abandoned or expropriated. Today, while still producing some coffee, they are principally planted in fruit trees. The few alluvial terraces with the most fertile soils support large plantations of citrus fruits, avocados, papayas, and other tree fruits that are often harvested on hillsides. Pineapples, another commercial crop, are generally planted on poor sloping soils. Corn, beans, peanuts, and manioc, as well as bananas and other tree fruits, are also planted on small plots for subsistence purposes.
At present, there are few conflicts over the use of forest lands for farming, since most of the valuable timber has already been extracted and the harvest of secondary native trees and shade trees for firewood and charcoal is not detrimental to agricultural interests. The 30 percent of the land planted in pineapple, annual crops, and pasture is removed from agricultural production when exhausted and can be either reforested or left as permanent protected areas to prevent erosion and sedimentation and to ensure continued water supplies.
Table 9-6
AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES AND THEIR POTENTIAL SECTORAL CONFLICTS IN THE CENTRAL SELVA
|
Development Axis |
Land Resource Base |
Availability of Agricultural Lands |
Agricultural Activities |
Conflicts with Other Sectors |
|
Chanchamayo Valley (San Ramon-La Merced) |
Alluvial Terraces gently sloping to hilly. |
Poor |
Fruit production, coffee distribution, shipping. |
Sloping terrain should be reforested or managed as protected watersheds. |
|
Villa Rica-Oxapampa |
Steep to hilly terrain. |
Moderate |
Coffee, livestock, permanent cultivation, limited forest exploitation. |
Intensive horticulture needs to be carried out on fertile soils, where grazing is the predominant land use. |
|
Pichanaki-Satipo |
Undulating topography, hilly to level terrain. |
Moderate |
Small farms, shifting agriculture, coffee, livestock, forest exploitation. |
Intensive agriculture can threaten downstream ecosystems. Regenerating natural forests rarely have time to produce harvestable sizes of timber-producing trees because peasants cut them down first. |
|
The Ene, Tambo, Pichis, and Palcazu river valleys |
Seasonally-flooded soils. |
Moderate to high |
Scattered colonies and native settlements that practice shifting agriculture, extensive livestock enterprise in the Palcazu valley, small-scale livestock production elsewhere. |
A large percentage of the alluvial floodplains are, at some time, occupied by permanent cultivation and extensive livestock operations. |
Since fruit grown in the Chanchamayo Valley is sold in Lima, it is difficult to imagine how alternative land uses such as grazing or cultivation of annual crops would compete economically with present practices.
The Villa Rica-Oxapampa region has rolling land with scattered terraces well-suited for agriculture, especially coffee and livestock. Although coffee prices fluctuate widely, the favorable growing conditions and efficient management by the descendants of German and Peruvian colonists produce high yields. Coffee and livestock operations demand much capital investment, but they are successful and well-established because neither coffee nor livestock compete much with similar land resources. On the other hand, the use of flat land near Oxapampa for grazing can compete with papaya production, while level ground planted in pasture is controlled by stockmen who have developed their own markets for livestock and milk products.
The construction of roads from La Merced to Pichanaki and Satipo has been a principal factor in determining land use patterns in the Pichanaki-Satipo development axis. Since the topography is gently undulating, the area offers promising agricultural potential when compared with that of the Chanchamayo Valley or the narrow valleys in the Villa Rica-Oxapampa region. A few medium-sized farms on level terrain raise livestock, fruit trees, and coffee, although semi-permanent agriculture, including shifting agriculture, is much more prevalent. Shifting cultivation meets its constant need for new land by timber harvest, although when more land is planted in permanent crops, the need for clearing forest should diminish and conflicts related to forest exploitation should be resolved. But a long-term problem may arise from the increasing use of pesticides as lands are converted to semi-permanent agriculture.
The Central Selva river valley regions (The Ene, Tambo, Pichis, and Palcazu rivers) are wild areas characterized by subsistence agriculture and small-scale animal production for domestic use. Native communities of Campas and Amueshas and some colonists live here, often without legal title to their property. The fertile soils of the alluvial floodplain make this area well suited for cultivation of certain permanent and annual crops. The land is more commonly cleared for grazing, however, because of the strong market for livestock products. A private airline owned by the larger producers has several airstrips in the Palcazu and Pichis valleys to transport fresh beef to San Ramon.
Proposed road construction in the region can alter market preferences in favor of other products and land uses. Since sparsely populated land still exists in the Ene and Tambo valleys, conflicts related to forest and livestock production, and to protected land, can be resolved through land use planning. Soils of these valleys are poor and, in some areas, dry, and not suited to either sustained yield forestry or agriculture.
Expansion of Arable Lands
If Peru hopes to keep pace with population growth in the next few decades, it must increase its agricultural production by at least 2.6 percent annually. The country can do this by intensifying production on existing agricultural lands, expanding the amount of land under cultivation, and using land to produce food for internal consumption rather than for export. Considerable differences in production potential characterize the three principal regions in Peru. The non-coastal areas are less productive because of climate and soil limitations, inadequate transportation and commercial infrastructure, and lack of appropriate technology (this comparison, however, is based only on agricultural suitability and not on land tenancy, actual use, and availability). For example, one hectare of cultivated land on the coast roughly equals the production of 2.3 mountain hectares and 1.8 forest hectares (Table 9-7). These conversions show that land suitable for agriculture is concentrated along the coast (41.7%) and in the mountains (33.5%), with a smaller percentage being found in the forest (24.8%). Although the total area of cultivated land varies little, there has been a tendency to cultivate new lands in the forest, because of the ease of doing so and because of the long periods of drought in the mountains.
For example, in the 1960s, the Marginal Highway was begun in response to social pressure for broad agrarian reform and to provide access to lands in Peruvian Amazonia. The highway led to spontaneous migration to scattered areas, and the limited agricultural potential of such land produced questionable economic success for the migrants, conflicts with local communities, and destruction of forest resources. In the 1970s attempts were made to expand the agricultural frontier by installing irrigation in coastal areas. Very few of these large-scale irrigation projects (Chira, Piura, Tinajones, and Majes-Siguas) can be considered successful, however, because of the high costs per hectare, the long-term financial commitment required, and deficiencies in project management. Indeed, one reason to expand the agricultural frontier in Peruvian Amazonia is that the cost of irrigating new coastal areas is extremely high - more than US$7,500 per hectare (Table 9-8) compared to the US$4,000 per hectare cost of developing forest lands (Table 9-9). These costs include access roads, credit, and commercial infrastructure.
Table 9-7
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURAL LAND USE
|
Region |
Ha. |
% |
Conversion to the Equivalent of Cultivated Coastal Hectares Under Irrigation |
% |
|
Coast |
632,095 |
25.6 |
631,336 |
41.7 |
|
Mountains |
1,171,899 |
47.4 |
505,909 |
33.5 |
|
Forests |
666,724 |
27.0 |
375,832 |
24.8 |
|
Total of Cultivated Land |
2,470,1788 |
100.0 |
1,513,077 |
100.0 |
a. An estimated 1.1 million hectares are left fallow each year.
Source: MAA, 1982.
Most likely, mountain lands could be used more intensively with irrigation and the use of technologies that take advantage of natural pastures and more stable soils. The result would be higher agricultural productivity that could feed more people and reduce migration to the coast and forest. An alternative strategy to incorporate additional areas into cultivation would be to rejuvenate the 153,000 hectares on selected coastal sites, improve the irrigation of mountain lands, and utilize suitable lands in the high forest.
Limitations to agricultural development in the Central Selva come from various sources. Those related to the physical environment include the following:
- Long rainy seasons create weed growth in pastures, flooded lands, and conditions favoring the breeding of insects and other pests.- The short-dry periods make pasture maintenance through burning of shrubs and weeds more difficult, increase the demand for seasonal labor, and affect the harvest, drying, and storage of some crops such as soybeans and peanuts.
- Low soil fertility and the high percentage of hilly terrain are not favorable to productive agriculture.
Other limitations are related to agronomy, commercial conditions, and to the availability of agricultural services:
- Most crops encounter problems with pests and weeds. Any new technologies employed to increase crop yields will also incur additional production costs.- Agricultural extension services and the agrarian banks need to be more efficient in transferring technology to farmers.
- Marketing lesser forest products is a problem because of the rapid decomposition of tropical fruits, the lack of reliable supplies, competition with established tropical products harvested near markets and processing plants, and the shortage of marketing services, such as current price information for the growers.
And finally, limitations related to the lack of appropriate technology abound. Efforts have been made to transfer agricultural practices used in temperate regions to the country, rather than to apply techniques appropriate to the small farms typical of the mountains and forest. Sufficient evidence proves that land management practices successful in temperate regions do not work in the humid tropics (Nelson, 1973).
Table 9-8
ESTIMATED COSTS INCURRED BY COASTAL LANDS
|
Project |
Lands Irrigated |
Estimated Cost of Irrigation |
Cost/ha of Lands Irrigated |
|
Chaco-Viru |
31,400 |
294.7 |
9,385 |
|
Olmos |
80,717 |
563.0 |
6,975 |
|
Total |
112,117 |
857.7 |
7,650 |
Source: Adler, 1980.
Table 9-9
STRATEGIES FOR EXPANDING ARABLE LANDS IN PERU
|
Region |
Ha |
Equivalent Cost of Coastal Irrigation |
Total Project Estimated Cost |
Cost/Ha |
Necessary Activities |
|
Coasta |
70,000 |
35,000 |
150 |
1,500 |
Recuperation of lands in affected saline areas. |
|
Mountainsb |
25,000 |
8,500 |
21.3 |
850 |
Improved irrigation. |
|
High Forestc |
261,400 |
109,800 |
462 |
4,207 |
Access roads, credit, crop storage |
a. Recuperation of lands affected by salinity.
b. IBRD.
c. The high forest includes three special projects: Alto Maya, Alto Huallaga, and Pichis-Palcazu.
Source: Adler, 1980.
To give planners a quick orientation to the present situation in the Central Selva, some of the region's problems are briefly described below. Table 9-10 presents a summary of these conflicts.
1. The best agricultural lands are already occupied.2. Poorly-planned roads provide access to lands unsuitable for agriculture.
3. The underutilization of agricultural lands has resulted in low production.
4. The intensified use of suitable agricultural lands will require greater investments in fertilizers and pesticides to maintain sustained production. If such investments are poorly managed, downstream ecosystems can become contaminated.
5. As more lands are abandoned and more pastures deteriorate, weeds become abundant and forests that act as barriers to the spread of pests disappear.
6. Urbanization and extensive livestock production utilize land suitable for agriculture.
7. Traditional agricultural systems increase resources, but are not sufficiently flexible to accommodate growing human populations. The short amount of time that lands are left fallow do not allow sufficient time for the soils to recover enough fertility for sustained agricultural production.
8. Native communities, which traditionally have practiced extensive use of the land, are now competing for their own land with colonists. The indigenous Campas and Amueshas intend to complete the process of obtaining land titles and to extend their domain to accommodate their growing populations. At the same time, national policy is to encourage emigration from overpopulated Andean communities. Conflicts between native communities, colonists, and Andean emigrants will increase when all realize the scarcity of soils capable of sustained production.
Table 9-10
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: CONFLICTS IN THE HUMID TROPICS
|
Agricultural Activity |
Conflicts Within the Agriculture Sector |
Conflicts with Other Sectors |
Solutions |
|
Utilization of fertilizers and pesticides for more intensive agriculture. |
Loss of predator-prey equilibria; disease and insect resistance to pesticides require increasingly-expensive control. |
Fish/Wildlife - Direct and indirect effects because of increasing levels of biocides in the water. |
Investigation of integrated pest management techniques. Establishing regulations controlling pesticide use with training, extension services, and enforcement. Evaluation of crop mixtures and agroforestry systems to increase production and to minimize problems with weeds and plagues. Pesticides need to be properly used for both economic and health reasons. |
|
Increasing cultivation on marginal areas because of spontaneous cultivation. |
Continued subsistence production levels and standards of living because of low yield. |
Fish/Wildlife - Habitat loss because of forest destruction. |
Encouragement of intensified agriculture on the best soils, evaluation of sustained agricultural production systems adapted to the humid tropics. Emphasizing the rehabilitation of abandoned fallow lands and of degraded pastures before new forest land is cleared. |
|
Underutilization of land resources (planting of fertile soils in grass instead of more intensive uses). |
Loss of profits obtainable from more intensive uses, need for utilizing marginal lands for intensive cultivation of annual or high-value crops. |
Fish/Wildlife - Indirect loss due to continued clearing of forests. |
Evaluation of land use, considering climatic, soil and economic limitations, land tenancy, market conditions, and cultural characteristics. |
Adler, R.W. 1980. "Policy Problems Concerning the Expansion of Arable Land in Peru." Unpublished Memorandum. USAID. Lima. 43 p.
Aramburú, C.E., E. Bedoya G. and J. Recharte B. 1982. Colonización en la Amazonía. Centre de Investigación y Promoción Agropecuaria. Lima. 161 p.
Jordan, C.F. 1982. "Amazon Rain Forests." American Scientist. 70: 394-401.
(MAA) Ministerio de Agricultura y Alimentación. 1980. Bases geográficas ecológicas para la producción agrícola, pecuaria y forestal en la costa y sierra del Perú. Boletín Técnico 28. 28 p.
(MAA) Ministerio de Agricultura y Alimentación. 1982. Anuario de estadística agrícola - 1979. Oficina Sectorial de Estadística. Peru.
(MAA) Ministerio de Agricultura y Alimentación. 1982. Anuario de estadística forestal y de fauna silvestre - 1980. Dirección General Forestal y de Fauna. Peru.
(NRC) National Research Council. 1982. Ecological Aspects of Development in the Humid Tropics. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press, 297 p.
Nelson, M. 1973. The Development of Tropical Lands. Resources for the Future. Baltimore. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
(ONERN) Oficina Nacional de Evaluación de Recursos Naturales. 1981. Inventario nacional de tierras del Perú.
(ONERN) Oficina Nacional de Evaluación de Recursos Naturales. 1982. Estudio, Inventario y Evaluación Semidetallada de los Recursos Naturales de la Zona del Río Pichis-Palcazu. Peru.
Recharte, J.B. 1982. "Prosperidad y pobreza en la agricultura de la ceja de la selva: El valle de Chanchamayo." In: Aramburu et at., pp. 109-161.
Sánchez, P.A., D.E. Bandy, J.H. Villachica and J.J. Nicholaides. 1982. "Amazon Basin Soils: Management for Continuous Crop Production." Science. 216: 821 -827.
Toledo, J.M. and E.A.S. Serrao. 1982. "Pasture and Animal Production in Amazonia." In: S.B. Hecht, ed. Amazonia, Agricultura and Land Use Research. CIAT. Cali, Colombia, pp. 281-309.
