Roundtable II - Water Supply and Sanitation Infrastructure in a Sustainable Development Context

Background Paper: Sustainable Water Resources Management: The Challenge of the 21st Century
Sub-track: Technological Aspects of Multipurpose Water Resources Projects
Sub-track: Economics and Financing

Co-Chairs

Arsenio Milián, President, Milián, Swain and Associates, Miami, Florida, USA

María C. Flores de Otero, International President, Asociación Interamericana de Ingeniería Sanitaria y Ambiental (AIDIS), Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico

Sub-track: Technological Aspects of Multipurpose Water Resources Projects

Dr. Medardo Molina, Chief Technical Advisor, U.N. World Meteorological Organization - FINNIDA Project for the Rehabilitation of the Hydro-Meteorological Systems of the Central American Isthmus, San José, Costa Rica

Eldon García, Executive Director, Floresta, Inc., Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic

Ken Frederick, Senior Fellow, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C., USA

Dr. Jorge Ramírez, Director, Colombian Institute of Hydrology (HIMAT), Santa Fé de Bogotá, Colombia

Vinio Floris, Supervisory Professional, Department of Planning, South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida

Sustainable Water Resources Management: The Challenge of the 21st Century, by Absalón Vásquez, Arsenio Milian, and Vinio Floris

Sub-track: Technological Aspects of Multipurpose Water Resources Projects

1. Water Resources in an Era of Sustainable Development - An Integrated Economic, Engineering, Environmental and Institutional Approach, by Harold J. Day, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, Wisconsin, USA.

2. A Hemispheric Network Development as a Vehicle to Ensure Education, Training and Technology Transfer in Water Resources Projects, by Hector R. Fuentes, V. A. Tsihrintzis and R. Jaffe, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA.

3. Priority Decisions in Latin America for Water Management, by Phillip Z. Kirpich, Consulting Engineer, Miami, Florida, USA.

4. Hydrometeorological Networks and Data Management for Prevention of Natural Disasters in Central America, by Medardo Molina, FINNIDA Project, San José, Costa Rica; Eladio Zárate, Comité Regional de Recursos Hidráulicos, San José, Costa Rica; and Nabil Kawas, Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

5. Water Management for the 21st Century, by Albert Muniz, J. I. García-Bengochea, R. David G. Pyne and William B. Ziegler, CH2M-HILL, Florida, USA.

6. Planning - A Must in the Conservation of Natural Resources: The Puerto Rico Experience, by Haraldo Otero-Torres and Maria C. Flores de Otero, Consulting Engineers, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.

7. Appropriate Technologies of Wastewater Treatment for Sustainable Development, by Ernesto Perez, Environmental Protection Agency, Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Sub-track: Economics and Financing

8. Water Markets and other Mechanisms to Decentralize Water Management, by Bill Easter, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.

9. Financing Investments in Water Supply and Sanitation, by Terence R. Lee, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.

10. Strategy for Developing a Competitive Infrastructure in the Small Islands Economies of the Caribbean, José Martinez, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Juan, Puerto Rico.

11. Designing Appropriate Financial Arrangements to Ensure the Proper Maintenance and Operation of Water Supply Facilities, by Enrique Moncada, Universidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina, Lima, Perú.

12. Environmental Issues and Environmentally Related Restrictions from the Perspective of the Borrowing Country, by José Ochoa-Iturbe, Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, Caracas, Venezuela.

13. Regional Plan for Investment in the Environment and Health, by Horst Otterstetter, Director of Environmental Health, Pan-American Health Organization, Washington, D.C., USA.

14. An Investigation of the Barriers to Private Sector Participation in Water Resources and Sewerage Services in Latin America, by Barbara Richard and Kenneth Rubin, Apogee Research, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, USA.

Background Paper: Sustainable Water Resources Management: The Challenge of the 21st Century

Absalón Vásquez¹, Arsenio Milián², and Vinio Floris³

¹ Minister of Agriculture of Peru; Edit. Min. de Trabajo, Piso 6, Av. Salaverry s/n, Jesús Maria, Lima, Perú

² President, Milian Swain and Associates; 2025 SW 32nd Avenue, Miami, Florida 33145, USA

³ Supervising Professional, South Florida Water Management District: P.O. Box 24680, West Palm Beach, Florida 33416-4680, USA

Water, air, food, heat and light constitute the five essentials for human existence. However, all body processes are so closely related to the presence of water, that it can be truthfully said that all life depends on it. Water plays an important role in all aspects of human existence; in the protection of the embryo in the mother's womb, the maintenance of body temperature, in assisting with adequate digestion and lubricating moving joints to name a few.

Though many will argue that the oxygen humans breathe and the carbon dioxide used by plants are equally if not more important than water, neither of these gases would be of use without water. Without this valuable fluid there can be no life - animal or vegetable.

In addition to bodily demands, there are other important needs for adequate supplies of water. Foods harvested from the lands are totally dependent upon water for their growth, since the soil's minerals must be in solution before they can be utilized by plants. Furthermore, a substantial part of the proteins and carbohydrates our body requires comes from animal, fish and plant life found only in or near oceans, lakes and streams. That is why water resources have played a critical role in the establishment of early settlements, since they were used not only for transportation, recreation, and fisheries, but most importantly were used as a source for drinking, washing, agriculture and waste disposal.

There are only two sources of water supply available to humans-surface sources such as lakes, streams and drainage basins that ultimately runnel water to holding reservoirs, and ground sources which include wells, springs and horizontal galleries. Both of these sources are not always separate. Hydraulic interconnections exist in such ways that ground waters at one particular location may appear at the surface of the earth at another distant site. It is worth noting that less than 3% of the fluid freshwater available in our planet occurs in streams and lakes. The other remaining 97% is underground.

As populations throughout the world continue to increase at an alarming rate, we are faced with the problem of more and more competition for water resources primarily for domestic consumption, irrigation, power generation, flood control, recreation, transportation, and the maintenance of natural systems for the conservation of fish and wildlife. It has become evident that some form of compromise between competing uses is essential, since the different uses are not necessarily compatible.

It has been determined that where the resources are properly managed and the demands for safe drinking water is met, national development and improvement of living standards have occurred. Where it has not been met, development has lagged and living standards have remained low. Unfortunately a recent United Nations report concluded that two thirds of the world's underprivileged people have no access to drinking water, and while millions become homeless from floods, hundreds of millions are coping with drought.

Since many of these quantity related problems are due to poor management. It is of utmost importance that priorities be established for the more efficient use and management of water resources that are not equally distributed on our planet. Inefficient irrigation practices, excessive demands by industries and municipalities and lack of conservation practices, are some of the obstacles that must be conquered before true Sustainable development is achieved. As a result, competition for water resources, especially in areas frequently affected by drought, or where scarcity generally exists, create instability between regions, cities, and even nations. Our challenge today is to establish our priorities more adequately and implement available technologies that should improve our efforts to use the resources more efficiently to avert critical consequences due to waste, mismanagement and overuse.

Water, a Renewable Resource

In theory, water is a renewable resource, since its origin is the water that falls as rain and snow on the land surfaces. However, supply replenishment depends on such factors as location, climate, time of the year, evaporation, etc., in addition to the impact caused by demands that may utilize water faster than natural recharge may occur.

As previously discussed, there are many different demands in the use of water (commercial, industrial, and public among them); but in general, the use of water for irrigation and agricultural pursuits has exerted high demands, while smaller quantities were consumed by people.

Past experiences have shown that in many parts of the world, water is considered an unlimited resource that can be obtained very inexpensively. This type of mind set has led to negative impacts to the quantity and quality of the resources. Both the quality and quantity are interconnected in the development of water when is required to meet the demands for a particular use. They should never be considered independently from each other, since the usefulness of the maximum water withdrawn will be limited by its quality. From the users' point of view, water quality is evaluated by the physical and chemical characteristics necessary to satisfy a specific use.

If one or more of these characteristics exceeds the amount that can be tolerated for a given use, some type of treatment may be applied to change or remove the undesirable elements, so that water will serve the intended purpose. Through the years technology has advanced to the point where a given water quality can be achieved. However these are times when alternative sources have to be located far away from the intended use, since it may be more economically feasible.

On the other hand, larger demands exerted by larger populations, and industries also create large quantities of wastes that may contaminate our major sources with organic and inorganic pollution. Of all environmental problems we face, contaminated water is probably the one of highest repercussion. Each year millions of people throughout the world die of illnesses attributable to waterborne intestinal diseases. As our population grows, the need to conserve, properly treat and reuse water will increase.

In the past few years we have seen technological advances that may help our efforts to use water resources more efficiently. More economical and efficient membranes are being used for desalination purposes and new methods of supply augmentation such as Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) are being implemented successfully. Other methods such as well field optimization, wastewater reuse for irrigation or as salt water intrusion barriers are also tools that, through technology, can improve the efficiency of use of our water resources.

Irrigation and Drainage: Present and Future

Many believe that Latin America and the Caribbean Region is humid by definition. The truth is that 25% of the total land corresponds to arid or semi-arid zones due to irregular distribution of rainfall. This problem started being addressed around the middle of the century with a massive building of infrastructure for storage of water. In the last 25 years cultivated land has increased 70%, from 8'245,000 Ha. to 15'231,000 in 1987, as shown in Figures 1 and 2, and in Table 1. This expansion rate is higher than in any region in the world.

However, there is a trend in the Region to provide more even distribution of water in time and space, and also to optimize its use (e.g. improve irrigation efficiency) by following a better water management and other related resources at the watershed level.

The economic and financial crisis of the 80's generated questions about the role of governments in water supply and management policies. From all the countries in the Region, Brazil, Mexico and Chile, are the ones who have made the most important changes in those policies. All these countries have selected different mechanisms but all have as a common denominator: the attempt to integrate and coordinate water management in a sustainable development context. Peru, for instance, is currently in the process of defining a new water policy in which the private sector, government and all users are involved. The peruvian government understands that a water market is needed keeping in mind that water is, above all, a very important public asset to which all humans should have access to, not only to satisfy basic needs, but for enjoyment and recreation as well.

Countries in Latin America use different means to promote irrigation and drainage. If we take Brazil and Peru as an example, they use the following motivations and means:

· encourage the implementation of large irrigation and drainage projects based on regional development plans, such as the irrigation project of the Vale do Sao Francisco in Brazil and the large irrigation projects in the coast of Peru;

· promote small and medium size projects based on specific goals for regions or zones.

Other problems that the Region faces are related to salt water intrusion in coastal areas due to excessive freshwater pumping from wells. Consequently, there are severe salt water intrusion cases in the Caribbean islands, Argentina (cities close to Mar del Plata), Mexico and El Salvador, where the drinking water standards have been exceeded. This is also a problem in areas in North America, principally in the State of Florida of the United States of America.

Water and Soil Conservation

A severe problem of soil loss affects almost all Latin America and Caribbean states. Soil erosion not only causes the loss of soil per se, but also creates severe degradation in downstream rivers and canals (e.g. hydroelectric power plants, navigation, flood control problems) and subsequent destruction of the ecosystem and environment.

Most of the lands with severe problems are located in the mountainous or sierra regions. It might sound difficult to believe but many pre-columbian indian cultures used techniques that were extremely efficient in the prevention of soil erosion, however, those techniques have not been continued and now the problems faced are severe. An important effort for conserving water and soil is being carried out by the governments of the Region at the basin level. Table 2 shows the characteristics of watershed management implemented by different Latin American countries.

It is essential to understand the need to manage the resources in such a way that current generations can benefit, yet maintain a high level of quality for future generations. This is the concept of sustainable development that is quickly gaining international acceptance. It is basically a process in which the allocation of resources and investments are made consistent with present as well as future needs. This implies harvesting only the sustainable production or enjoying only the sustainable level of services their ecosystem can deliver.

Figure 1: Latin America and the Caribbean Irrigated Land

Source: ECLAC

Figure 2: Latin America and the Caribbean Irrigated Land (Hectares in thousands)

Source: FAO

Country	1961	1970	1980	1987	Increment
Argentina	980	1280	1580	1700	720
Belize	-	1	1	2	2
Bolivia	72	80	140	165	93
Brazil	490	796	1800	2500	2010
Colombia	226	250	400	496	270
Costa Rica	26	26	61	118	92
Cuba	230	450	762	890	660
Chile	1075	1180	1255	1300	225
Ecuador	440	470	520	546	106
El Salvador	18	20	110	117	99
Guatemala	32	56	68	79	47
Guyana	90	115	125	128	38
Haiti	35	60	70	70	35
Honduras	50	70	82	88	38
Jamaica	22	24	33	34	12
Mexico	3000	3583	4980	4900	1900
Nicaragua	18	40	80	84	66
Panama	14	20	28	30	16
Paraguay	30	40	60	66	36
Peru	1016	1106	1160	1200	184
Dominican Rep.	110	125	165	206	96
St. Lucia	1	1	1	1	0
St. Vincent/Grenadines	-	1	1	1	1
Suriname	14	28	42	60	46
Trinidad/Tobago	11	15	21	22	11
Uruguay	27	52	79	100	73
Venezuela	218	284	315	328	110
TOTAL	8245	10173	13939	15231	6986

Table 2: Watershed Management Status in Latin America

a = Location b = Watershed management programs c = Selection criteria d = Financing sources Panama a. Pacific and Caribbean Basins b. An integrated plan for watershed management does not exist c. Interest in pilot basin and hydropower projects d. International cooperation and internal resources Guatemala a. Basin in the Caribbean Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific b. An integrated micro-basins program exists c. Selection is done based on current and future water availability d. International cooperation and internal resources Nicaragua a. Twenty one basins in the Atlantic and Pacific b. No management plans have been implemented c. It has planned a methodology for operational plans and small areas El Salvador a. Seventeen basins in ten regions Paraguay a. Thirty one basins b. Until 1988, 82 units of watershed management were operational c. Not reported d. Central government and municipalities Honduras a. Thirty five basins in the Atlantic and Pacific b. None c. Methodologies used were developed by FAO, US AID, OAS d. International cooperation and internal resources Mexico a. Thirty seven hydrographic regions, with 139 major basins (Pacific. Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean) b. Pilot basins in 15 states c. Methodology follows watershed management plan d. International cooperation and internal resources Dominican Republic a. One hundred and six basins b. A national plan exists c. none reported d. International cooperation and internal resources Peru a. Basins in three outlets: Pacific, Atlantic and Lake Titicaca b. Methodology for basins, sub-basins and micro-basins c. Projects oriented to soil conservation and increase of productivity d. International cooperation and internal resources Bolivia a. Three main basin: Amazon, El Plata, and Altiplano b. Prioritization based on water resources available, hydroelectric potential c. Projects based on flood control and improvement of human life d. International cooperation and internal resources Chile a. Two hundred thirty seven basins b. Methodology available that assigns priorities to basins c. Social aspects are considered d. International cooperation and internal resources Argentina a. Watershed management not done in an unified way b. Projects oriented to maintain infrastructure and protection from floods and other natural phenomena Uruguay a. National Committee of Watershed Management b. Watershed management is related to hydroelectric potential and agricultural production Venezuela a. Three kinds of basins at high (most of the rural population), medium and low levels b. No plans have been implemented c. Considered all human needs d. Ministry of the environment finances programs Source: Report of the Workshop on Evaluation of Programs and Projects of watershed Management. Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 1991.

Hydropower Generation

As stated previously, energy is one of the main elements for development. One of the most practical ways of obtaining it is through hydropower generation by convening hydraulic energy to mechanical and finally to electrical. To obtain this kind of energy not only are economic resources required, but also natural conditions (topography and hydrology). Latin America is very fortunate with the latter. Its high slope mountains and high river flows create an enormous hydropower potential (around 22% of the world), representing 700,000 Megawatts, while the developed (installed) capacity achieved is only 22% of that total (153,500 Megawatts).

Hydropower is the most common way of generating power in the Region (64%), while thermoelectric plants represent 32.4%. The energy generated in 1991 was estimated around 590,000 Gigawatts-hour. The increased demand in the Region is approximately 5% per annum.

The largest hydroelectric plant in Latin America is Itaipu (Brazil), with an installed capacity of 12,600 Megawatts. Second is Guri (Venezuela) and Chingo (Brazil) with 10,000 y 5,000 Megawatts, respectively.

Latin America has a long tradition in hydropower generation. Its benefits with respect to others (thermoelectric plans, nuclear central, etc.) are well known. However, it is important to list some of the problems that must be corrected and priorities that have to be established, in order to increase efficiency and supply energy to a large group of the Region's population.

a. The high initial investment of hydropower plants are incentives for some to use conventional options like thermoelectric centrals. The latter ones require much lower initial investment but have high operation and maintenance costs. Another drawback would be the dependence on some combustible product that might create environmental problems and may not be available in many countries in the Region (Caribbean Islands, for example).

b. The little attention given to operation and maintenance are other causes of concern. Scarce economic resources and the non existence of a serious program of operation and maintenance contribute to affect the life of the equipment, their reservoirs and their water infrastructure.

c. Little attention to the modification and conservation of the environment (fauna and flora) that surrounds hydropower projects. Currently, in an effort to assist in this area, lending institutions require an environmental impact study for each hydroelectric project before any construction is started.

d. Considering the sui generis conditions of the Region, it is difficult to select an appropriate technology for the efficient use of hydroelectric power plants. For example, the high concentration and quality of sediments in the sierra regions create severe problems in reservoirs, hydraulic infrastructure and, to hydro-mechanical equipment (e.g. turbines) that are commonly designed to different conditions of solid transport.

e. Existence of the single-purpose hydraulic projects. Though this vision is disappearing, many projects were created with this in mind. This goes against the modern systems approach theory which states that infrastructure can be used with multipurpose goals: energy, irrigation, flood control, water supply and - something not very well developed in Latin America - recreation, greatly increasing its benefits and reducing its costs.

f. Little attention to hydroelectric planning. This creates uncertainty when long versus short term decisions are evaluated, the construction of small of large plants are analyzed and the implementation of efficient interconnected systems.

The Road Ahead

It is evident that in order to achieve the sustainability of water resources, it will be necessary to create a comprehensive overhaul of the existing water management methods. This will require the reversal of the damage to natural systems and provide adequate water supply to satisfy rural and urban needs. If no quick actions are taken in this direction, the natural systems will continue to deteriorate, which will undoubtedly impact the Region's economy and the quality of life.

The use of present technologies and innovative ideas should lead the Region to live in balance with its water resources. It will be essential to achieve a sustainable water resources management for the 21st century since the urban and natural environment, the economy, and the quality of life of the Region depend on it.

Sub-track: Technological Aspects of Multipurpose Water Resources Projects

Water Resources Planning and Management in an Era of Sustainable Development - An Integrated Economic, Engineering, Environmental and Institutional Approach
A Hemispheric Network Development as a Vehicle to Ensure Education, Training, and Technology Transfer in Water Resources Projects
Priority Regions in Latin America for Water Management
Hydrometeorological Networks and Data Management for Prevention of Natural Disasters in Central America
Water Management for the 21st Century
Planning - A Must in the Conservation of Natural Resources: The Puerto Rico Experience
Appropriate Technologies of Wastewater Treatment for Sustainable Development

Water Resources Planning and Management in an Era of Sustainable Development - An Integrated Economic, Engineering, Environmental and Institutional Approach

Harold J. Day¹

¹ University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, 2377 S. Webster Avenue, Green Bay, Wisconsin 54301, USA

A Prediction

The new era of sustainable development that has begun in many parts of the world, including North America, will stimulate water resource professionals to seek better planning and management approaches. One such approach will be to integrate ecology, economics, technology and institutions in the analysis of water quantity and quality problems within a watershed.

A DEFINITION AND RELATED DISCUSSION

Sustainable development may be defined as “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development). A number of recent developments have stimulated water resource professionals to consider the concept of sustainability as a central focus in future planning and management. New scientific knowledge, the increasing world population and the changing global economy are three examples that apply to many nations. The evolving change in water quality management policy in the US is an example restricted to one nation.

New Scientific Knowledge

New scientific knowledge has been gained in many subjects during the past decade. One that has stimulated interest in sustainability is the ecosystem perspective. Water resource professionals have historically planned and managed in a piecemeal manner. With some notable exceptions, water quantity and quality problems have been solved separately. Related land use issues such as urban sprawl have been addressed with a minimum of attention to the impact on adjacent communities or the receiving waters. The ecosystem perspective was introduced into the Great Lakes in the early 1980's as evidence grew of persistent toxics bioaccumulating in fish and fish eating birds (Harris, State of the Bay). Attention to upstream contributions of nutrients, suspended solids and persistent toxics to downstream pollution problems also emphasized the interconnecting features of a watershed ecosystem. Recognition of wetlands as valuable pans of a watershed has also occurred in this time period. Today the ecosystem perspective is generally accepted in many regions as a central part of land and water resource planning and management.

World Population

Water and air are the two absolute essentials for human life. Per capita water use has long been recognized as an important indicator of the quality of life. The rapidly growing world population is causing some nations to consider water as a strategic resource. The Middle East is the most notable example. Allocation of the region's water resources, e.g. the Nile, the Tigris, the Euphrates and the Jordan Rivers, will become increasingly important as the population grows. Other regions also have limited water and rapidly growing populations (Downey, et. al.). The poverty levels in a particular nation often correlate directly with population density and inversely with the use of water. The concept of sustainable growth may help water planners and policy makers in such problem areas to prepare for the future.

Changing Global Economy

Evidence of a rapidly changing global economy is all around us. The most newsworthy is the North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA (Grayson). A more recent, and perhaps more important globally, is the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT. The European Union, EU, is another important multinational organization. Each of these agreements is based upon the assumption that reduced trade barriers are beneficial to all participating nations. The increased competition implied is judged to be the primary driving force that will force everyone to be more efficient or go out of business.

The need for more cost effective water resource planning and management will be a natural consequence of these global developments. Interest in sustainability can complement the effort to be cost effective.

A NATIONAL EXAMPLE OF A CHANGING FRAMEWORK FOR WATER RESOURCES PLANNING & MANAGEMENT

The evolving changes in water quality planning and management in the United States have been chosen as an example of combining concepts of sustainability with those of cost effectiveness. For the past three decades improvements in the surface water quality of this nation have been based upon a complex process that could be called Limited Regulatory Management, LRM. The LRM process could be characterized with the following features: technology based abatement of point source, i.e., municipal and industrial, pollution through a regulatory process which included significant construction grants, usually 75%, to municipalities and concern for uniformity of regulation, e.g., all municipal sewage treatment plants to be at the secondary level.

The draft of the latest Clean Water Act, the primary federal law governing surface water pollution abatement, contains several features that indicate LRM will be history soon. Two of them are pollution prevention and watershed based planning. Pollution prevention has been a part of industrial management for decades due to the economic benefits. Now the idea is being applied to entire communities as a cost effective way to reduce water pollution. The watershed has been used as the logical land area for planning and management of water resources in France and in the United Kingdom for many years. Now the idea is being proposed here. The opportunities for achieving more cost effective water pollution abatement make the watershed approach very attractive. The challenge is to find an effective way to integrate ecology, economics, technology and institutions into a framework for the cost effective analysis. The least cost concept is one approach to the integration effort. The result of such an integrated analysis would be a step toward achieving the sustainability of water resources.

The following section is a more detailed description of the least cost concept.

LEAST COST CONCEPT A COST EFFECTIVE APPROACH

The basic approach is to generate information on the costs of different ways to achieve different target sets of desired outputs from a particular land and water region, e.g., a watershed. The target sets would be defined as a particular combination of indicators describing the land and water use to achieve a given level of goods and services (outputs). A typical set of indicators would be: population growth, technological changes in industry and other societal activities, social preferences. Three hypothetical target sets at a particular region are:

Target Set I - Maintenance of the present level of outputs (given an expected growth in population and economic activity including pollution prevention).

Target Set II - Target Set I activities plus a resumption of swimming at some beaches plus an increase in the harvest of fin and shell fish.

Target Set III - Target Set II activities plus a resumption of swimming at virtually all beaches, rehabilitation of many wetlands for waterfowl habitat and fishery spawning and a significant increase in the harvest of fin and shell fish (both species and quantities).

The second step would be to ask the scientists and engineers who have been modeling water and sediment quality in the receiving waters to estimate what reductions in inputs of various materials into the waters would be necessary to achieve the indicated values of the water and sediment quality indicators for each of the target sets. For example, water clarity along the beaches is predominantly affected by suspended sediment concentrations. Using the Secchi disk measurement as the indicator of water clarity, the relationship between the Secchi disk measurement and suspended sediment concentration at each beach would be specified by researchers.

The third step would be to ask the scientists and engineers what reductions in suspended sediment discharge into the waters would be necessary to achieve the suspended sediment concentrations at each beach specified in step 2. The result of that specification is illustrated in Figure 1, showing the Secchi disk reading associated with the three different levels of suspended sediment input reduction necessary to achieve the concentrations required for swimming for the three output levels.

The fourth step would be to divide the drainage area into subareas, representing the various tributaries. Point and nonpoint sources of suspended sediment discharges in each of these subareas arc identified, and the amounts and time patterns of suspended sediment discharges from these sources are estimated. Point sources include municipal wastewater treatment plants and industrial and other activities discharging directly into the receiving waters. Nonpoint sources include urban storm runoff and storm runoff from nonurban lands, primarily agricultural lands.

For each of the major sources, estimates are made of the costs of reducing suspended sediment discharges by different amounts. That is, for most sources there are several different degrees of discharge reduction which are possible. For example a municipal wastewater treatment plant could reduce suspended sediment discharges by 35%, 65%, 80%. Costs, of course, increase as more and more discharge reduction is achieved, remembering that, in the case of point sources, removing suspended sediment (or any material) from the liquid waste stream results in a semi-solid material, sludge, which itself requires disposal. Capital and annual operation, maintenance, and replacement (OMR) costs are included. Typically annual costs of each alternative are computed, in order to compare the different alternatives (Grant, et. al.). These annual costs are converted into unit costs per ton of reduced suspended sediment discharge into the downstream receiving waters. (This, of course, requires understanding the transport and deposition processes between the discharge location for each source and the downstream area.) The unit costs would be compiled as shown in Table 1. (Note: In that table, all activities in a given subwatershed have been aggregated. In a real analysis, individual sources in each watershed would be identified, except where those sources are individually so small that it is more logical to “lump” them.) The important column for decision making is the last column, which shows the cost per ton of reducing suspended solids discharge from the source into the receiving waters.

The fifth, and last step, would be to select the least cost combination of measures to achieve the level of discharge reduction specified for each target set. One starts with the measure which has the lowest cost per unit of discharge into the downstream receiving waters reduced. This may be a major point source, urban storm runoff from a municipality or some agricultural operations in a particular subwatershed. If the reduction that would be achieved (or is estimated to be achieved) by this source is not sufficient to achieve the designated reduction, then the option with the next lowest cost per unit would be added. The process of adding measures would be continued until the necessary total reduction is achieved. The results for the three target sets would be as compiled in Table 2 and shown in Figure 2.

This process would be repeated for other materials of interest, e.g., organic matter, heavy metals, phosphorus. In so doing what would be found is that some physical measures to reduce discharges of a given material of interest also reduce discharge of one or more other materials of interest. For example, reducing discharges of suspended solids from a wastewater treatment plant often also results in some reduction in discharges of heavy metals.

Figure 1. Relationship Between Reduction in Suspended Sediment Input to Downstream Water and Secchi Disk Reading at an Adjacent Beach

Figure 2. Least Cost combination of Measures to Reduce Suspended Solids (SS) Inputs to Achieve Specified Target Sets

Table 1. Options for Reducing Suspended Sediment, SS, Inputs into Downstream Receiving Waters, Estimated Unit Costs

Aggregated Activities by Sub Watershed	Mean Reduction in SS Inputs to Downstream 103 Tons	Capital Costs in 1990 $	Annualized Capital Costs, 103 1990 $ (1)	Operation & Maint. Costs, 103 1990 $	Total Annual Costs, 103 1990 $ (2)	Cost per Unit Reduction in SS Input $ Per Ton
IA	2000				20	10
IB	3000				60	20
IC	6000				180	30
IIA	1000				5	5
IIB	1500				225	15
IIC	4000				100	25
IID	5000				175	35

(1) Annualized Capital Cost = Capital Cost X Capital Recovery Factor, CRF, e.g., 10% at 15 years = CRF of 0.1315; 7.5% at 20 years = CRF of 0.1.

(2) Total costs are net costs, i.e., in some cases measures to reduce discharges result in some savings, such as recovered materials or reduced inputs.

Target Set	Suspended Solid (SS) Input Reduction Req'd, 103 Tons	Reduction Actions in Sub Watershed, 103 Tons	Cost/Ton (1990 $)	Costs, 103 1990 $
I	4	IIA:1	5	5.0
		IA:2	10	20. 0
		IIIB:1.0	15	15.0
	Total	4		40.0
II	11	Same as I:4		40. 0
		plus
		IIB:0.5		7.5
		IB:3		60.0
		IIC:4		100. 0
	Total	11.5		207. 5
III	20	Same as II:11.5		207.5
		plus
		IC:6		180
		IID:2.5		87.5
	Total	20.0		475. 0

Once this information became available, it could be used to help set policy. Legally, the regulating agency would decide what target set should be achieved. Politically, the general public and their elected representatives, would have major responsibilities. How much are the citizens in the watershed willing to pay to achieve desired outputs from the receiving waters? The same set of outputs can be achieved at different costs. Thus, if more efficient ways of achieving cost effective ways of obtaining the outputs are sought and adopted, either higher levels of outputs can be achieved with the same resources or the “saved” resources can be used for activities in other desired sectors.

What is essential is that the full ranges of physical measures, implementation incentives, institutional arrangements, and financing mechanisms be considered in the analysis process and in the decision process.

Now that the least cost approach is better understood, the practical application of these ideas is considered. Two possible demonstration sites, one in the United States and the other in Mexico, are briefly discussed.

TWO POSSIBLE DEMONSTRATION SITES

Site No. 1 - Fox/Wolf River Watershed In Northeastern Wisconsin And Lake Michigan

The first site for demonstrating a least cost approach to water resource planning and management is the Fox/Wolf River watershed of northeastern Wisconsin. This river system drains approximately 6000 square miles. It is the largest tributary in the Lake Michigan drainage basin, a part of the Laurentian Great Lakes. A map of the area is presented as Figure 3. This watershed has been recognized as a pollution problem area for at least fifty years. Details have been documented previously (Harris, et al).

Today it is the home of approximately 750,000 people, most of whom live in urban areas located in the downstream 10 percent of the basin. The paper industry, historically a serious source of surface water pollution, has been the dominant manufacturing type in the area for a century. Large rural areas are dairy farms.

Efforts to abate water pollution began in earnest in the mid-1970's with attention directed almost exclusively to municipal and industrial point sources. Stimulated by new federal and state laws and massive construction grants to municipalities, near to $500 million has been invested in wastewater treatment plants since then.

The river and bay recovered dramatically and fish returned to many areas where they had been absent for many years. By the early 1980's the evidence that not all was well began to emerge. An awareness of the ecosystem concept emerged at the same time. The algae blooms associated with excessive upstream nutrients continued to plague the lower bay in the summer months. Persistent toxics became apparent in the body flesh of fish and fish eating birds. Bioaccumulation was recognized as a new factor. The entire watershed, including upstream runoff from rural and urban sources as well as contaminated sediments in the river bottom from past industrial practices, was recognized as part of the problem.

What should be done? This was a question asked by many. The answer finally chosen was to use the least cost approach in an investigation of surface water pollution throughout the watershed. A one year framework analysis was funded by a number of local municipalities, industries and private foundations.

The results were very preliminary and did not include all features of the least cost approach. They also did not include all recognized pollutants, e.g., river sediments contaminated with PCB's from past paper mill sludge deposits. The results did show three new pieces of evidence not available previously (Analysis Team):

- The goal of removing 50% of the phosphorus presently entering Green Bay at the mouth of the river could not be achieved without some reduction of agricultural non point sources.

- The cost of reducing phosphorus and suspended solids from agricultural non point sources was often 1% of the cost to remove the same amount at municipal and industrial point sources.

- A small segment of the agricultural land area contributed the majority of the phosphorus and sediment.

These preliminary results show clearly that the least cost approach is an improved method to plan the water quality management program for the Fox/Wolf River watershed. Additional study is needed to refine the investigation results.

Site No. 2 - Northern Region of the Yucatán Peninsula and Gulf of Mexico Shoreline

The second site for demonstration of these ideas is located in the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico. The area includes approximately 4000 square miles of the peninsula northern region located between the coastline and a parallel line drawn through Mérida, about 20 miles south. The region is bounded along the coast by Celestun on the west and Rio Lagartos on the east. A shoreline of approximately 240 miles, largely undeveloped, extends between these two small communities. Approximately one million people live in the area with at least three fourths in the capital city, Mérida. A map of the region is presented in Figure 4.

The two demonstration sites contain similar land areas and populations. Most other features are quite different. The Yucatán site is karstic, i.e., the bedrock is highly fractured and there is little or no top soil. The result is that there is no runoff from the rainfall. The water either evaporates into the atmosphere or infiltrates into the aquifer. The concept of a surface land area serving as a watershed does not apply. There is little or no contaminated surface water inland and most of the brackish shoreline wetlands show little evidence of degradation today. Two national bird sanctuaries and a generally healthy commercial fishery exist along the coast.

The problem is the increasing contamination of the fresh water aquifer in most urban areas with special attention to the Mérida metropolitan region. There is no community wide sewerage system. Most residences have a simple septic tank that drains directly into the shallow aquifer. The aquifer drains very slowly north to the Gulf of Mexico. The karst geology makes it very difficult to predict micro scale groundwater motion. From a regional or macro scale view, the long term result seems quite clear. The shoreline marshes, called ciénega, will become the sites of a contaminated shoreline ecosystem. Persistent toxics released into the aquifer near Mérida from a variety of urban sources and elsewhere in developing orange groves, will emerge at the coast and bioaccumulate in the fish and fish eating birds. The value of the shoreline as a natural area and as an area for future development for tourism will be sharply diminished.

The present policies for land and water use are not likely to emerge as significant problems for several years, perhaps more than a decade (Anonymous). An analysis using the least cost approach very soon could reduce expected problems in the future.

SUMMARY COMMENTS ON THE TWO POSSIBLE DEMONSTRATION SITES

The two sites chosen for this paper have sharp contrasts. The land use, the ecosystem, the institutional arrangements and the technology in use are all quite different. The most significant difference, and the one which makes them very appropriate sites, is that one needs corrective and the other needs preventative actions. They, together, symbolize the wide spectrum of sites that will need attention in the future.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The years ahead will bring increasing demand for improvements in the planning and management of our water resources. The concept of sustainable development will stimulate the demand. One alternative for such improvements is to use the least cost mix of actions as the nucleus for an integrated management approach. This approach would invoke the explicit inclusion of ecology, economics, technology and institutions. Many existing features of both water quality and quantity planning and management are part of this integrated approach. The value comes from a synergistic effect of the integration. There is very little experience in the use of this integrated management approach and more is needed.

Figure 4. Demonstration Site No. 2 - Northern Area of the Yucatan Peninsula

Adapted from: Moseley and Terry, Yucatan: A World Apart, University of Alabama Press, 1980, p. 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper contains many ideas shared with the author by Blair T. Bower, Senior Fellow, World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C. Blair has been a source of encouragement in exploring better ways to plan and manage water resources for many years. The section on the least cost concept has been adapted from part of an unpublished report, Management of Large Water Bodies, prepared by members of the Task Committee on Management of Large Water Bodies, Water Resources Planning and Management Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Chair, H.J. Day, November, 1991.

The Yucatán demonstration site narrative was based upon many visits to the area during the past ten years and discussions on the subject with a number of faculty and research staff of the Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán. Ing. Miguel Villasuso Pino has been especially helpful.

Preparation of the manuscript including all figures, was done by the staff of the Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District, Green Bay, Wisconsin. The efforts of Ms. Kay Floading have been especially noteworthy.

REFERENCES

World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1987, pg. 8.

Harris, H.J., “The State of the Bay”, Report produced by the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, Institute for Land and Water Studies, Green Bay, WI, 1990.

Downey, T.J. and B. Mitchell, “Middle East Water: Acute or Chronic Problem?”, Water International, Vol. 18, No. 1, March 1993, pgs 1-4.

Grayson, G., “The North American Free Trade Agreement”, Headline Series No. 299, Foreign Policy Association, Summer, 1993.

Grant, E. L. and W. Ireson, Principles of Engineering Economy - Fifth Edition, Ronald Press, New York, 1970.

Harris, H.J., Sager, P.E., C.J. Yarbrough and H.J. Day, “Evolution of Water Resource Management: A Laurentian Great Lakes Study”, The International Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 29, Number 1 (1987).

Analysis Team, “Cost Effective Implementation of Water Resources Objectives In the Fox-Wolf Basin,” Unpublished report by the Northeast Wisconsin Waters for Tomorrow, Inc., Green Bay, WI, July 1993.

Anonymous, “Water Resources In the State of Yucatán-An Overview”, Unpublished report by a class in water resources planning in the School of Engineering, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, January 1986.

A Hemispheric Network Development as a Vehicle to Ensure Education, Training, and Technology Transfer in Water Resources Projects

H. R. Fuentes and V. A. Tsihrintzis¹; R. Jaffe²

¹ Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Drinking Water Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, USA; Phone: (305) 348-2837; Fax: (305) 348-2802. E-Mail: Fuentes@ENG.FIU.EDU

² Department of Chemistry and Drinking Water Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, USA

In response to the freshwater-associated challenges consented in Agenda 21, adopted by the United Nations Conference of Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992, the nations of the Americas should timely take actions to implement water resources projects. These projects must ensure protection of the supply and quality of freshwater for its people and ecosystems within the context of a sustainable development.

Pursuit of concrete action plans that emerged from the conference requires acknowledgement and implementation of a range of programme areas relating to freshwater, such as water resources assessments, integrated water resources development and management, protection of water quality, aquatic ecosystems, and drinking water supply and sanitation, among others. At the onset of a Continental Dialogue, a prime concern in launching an International Water Resources Network is to scope the potential role of such network in education, training, and technology transfer.

Herein, typical initiatives are recognized where networks are positively supporting and catalyzing professional advancement, continuing education, information exchange, and problem-solving through specialized volunteer contributions. Barriers that need be addressed are also identified. A priority list of specific goals and tasks for the development of the network in the Americas is also presented.

FRAMEWORK FROM AGENDA 21

As part of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, twenty seven principles were proclaimed in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (United Nations, 1993). Those principles define a comprehensive and interrelated set of statements and objectives, towards which world communities should move forward, in order to ensure the implementation of the imperative need for sustainable development.

At least four of the principles establish the spirit to implement communication lines, such as a network, that would facilitate flow of information for education, training, and technology transfer in water resources projects.

Principle 3. “The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.”

Principle 7. “States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem....”

Principle 9. “States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-building for sustainable development by improving scientific understanding through exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the development, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies, including new and innovative technologies.”

Principle 10. “Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided.”

Conclusively, the message is clear. In order to protect our biosphere for all generations of humans, people must become partners that timely exchange information. The message is generic to all priority actions articulated in Agenda 21, but it particularly acquires a much more direct and immediate dimension in the case of freshwater resources projects, considering its vital role in the sustenance of all life forms on Earth.

The establishment of a communication network in the Western hemisphere, with the purpose of launching a comprehensive Inter-American effort to protect the quality and supply of freshwater resources for the people of the Americas, becomes then a prime task to achieve water needs for human development activities in all American communities. The network should stem from due considerations of the functioning of aquatic ecosystems which must reach all locations within the political boundaries of each country, but extending across international borders. The network will focus on information exchange, transfer, and accessibility to address the following major themes (United Nations, 1993):

a) integrated water resources development and management;
b) protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems;
c) provision of drinking-water supply and sanitation; and
d) provision of water for sustainable food production and rural development.

a) new and additional financial resources; and
b) development of human resources.

In exploring the best approaches to developing a hemispheric network with emphasis on water resources, it is important to review previous experiences which can provide a basis for further efforts. This section describes selected examples of past or current partnerships for networking in the hemisphere.

The UNESCO International Hydrological Initiative

In 1965, UNESCO, as a contribution to the solution of the worldwide problems, began the first worldwide programme of studies of the hydrological cycle, the International Hydrological Decade, IHD, 1965-1974. The research programme included a major effort in the field of hydrological education and training. By the end of the decade, most UNESCO's Member States had built capacity to carry out national priorities and participate in regional and international cooperations. In 1975, UNESCO followed the IHD with the International Hydrological Programme, IHP, 1975-present, a scientific and educational programme which has gradually shifted into a multi-disciplinary approach to the assessment, planning, and rational management of water resources.

After more than twenty-five years (Gilbrich, 1991), the programme's record includes over fifty meetings, two dozen publications, more than a hundred experts participating in working groups and panels, and about ten thousand people who have directly participated in education and training. Indirectly, the programme has brought a worldwide hydrological education and training with technology transfer being channeled in all its facets, from on-the-job training to formal postgraduate education, to the technician and the professor, encompassing both the science and engineering fields. It could be said that hydrological education has been institutionalized in both developed and developing countries.

Overall this program shows a successful outcome in education and training, based on an effective transfer of knowledge and technology, within a framework of cooperative partnerships among developed and developing nations. Financing has resulted from combined allocations of UNESCO and the participating countries to meet needs of the educational and research institutions, and the same time providing fellowships for students from the participating countries.

Water for People, WFP

WFP (AWWA, 1992), an international nonprofit, non-sectarian, and non-governmental organization, was formed by the American Water Works Association, AWWA, one of the largest associations of water professionals in the world, with the purpose to respond to the drinking water and sanitation needs of people in lesser developed countries. The primary mission of WFP is to serve as a channel for volunteers and caring people to express their concerns.

WFP includes the following services: a) volunteer teams from North America and 47 countries; b) accessibility to WATERNET, one of the largest computer water-based information networks in the world; c) printed materials; d) education on potable water and sanitation needs, including global water problems for 7-9th grade students; e) in-kind contributions.

This initiative is an example of partnerships among individuals, corporations, utilities, organizations and agencies, which come together as volunteers in education, training, information transfer, within projects and solutions to specific regional and local problems. Financing taps the caring of people across the world which brings them together in a network of satisfying contributions.

Computer Databases with Latin American Information

Specialized databases on Latin America have been initiated by various academic institutions in the United States. Three examples are INFO-SOUTH, LADB, and CUIDES. Financing has been initially provided through grants which are eventually reinforced by user fees.

INFO-SOUTH Latin American Information System (UM, 1993), an online database produced at the University of Miami, specializes on information about Latin American politics and business. Since 1988, it has covered journal articles, newsmagazine articles and newspaper articles from major publications in Latin America, the Caribbean, North America, and Europe. Summaries of publications in Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Haitian Creole, among others, are available in English. Updating is weekly with about 10,000 new entries every year.

The Latin America Data Base (LADB) was created in 1985 at the University of New Mexico (UNM, 1992). The database has the objective of generating easily and timely, comprehensive information on the regional economic news and analysis easily to scholars, business people, activists, and government officials. It utilizes print media, radio, telecommunications and satellite technologies to report on Latin American events and developments. The base is updated weekly and can be accessed via direct or linked networks (e.g., New Mexico Technet and Dialog).

Data bases, such as INFO-SOUTH and LADB, offer communication linkages between informational sources and a network of users with particular interest in the Americas. Although no information is available on scientific and technological aspects of water resource projects in these bases, they represent a complementary resource and access to groups with interest in economic issues. They can also potentially integrate their users to other populations of customers.

An interesting initiative is CUIDES (The Inter-American University Council for Economics and Social Development) launched by the University of Arkansas (Miller, 1991). Since 1986, CUIDES has been working to establish a mechanism to encourage and facilitate the exchange of water resources expertise and technology in the Americas, a first step toward establishing a focus on water resource management expertise in the Americas. The data base is being used to identify water resource issues, and also individuals and organizations with expertise in water resources who have the willingness to share their expertise internationally. A next step involves exchanges, hemispheric conferences, seminars, and the development of an innovative water resources curriculum. A major aim is to understand ways for cooperative networking among universities, research institutes, businesses, and governments, at an Inter-American level.

Florida Engineering Education Delivery System (FEEDS)

FEEDS (FIU, 1993) is a statewide system whereby graduate level engineering courses are delivered to industrial sites and cooperating centers via telecommunications. The system is an evolving approach to provide quality graduate and continuing education to engineers at their work site in the State of Florida. The system was funded by special action of the Florida Legislature through cooperation of all the universities of the State University System. The universities with graduate programs are Primary Centers, the other universities are Cooperating Centers. In addition there are Industrial FEEDS Centers which have been established at industrial sites.

The system records university graduate classes in videotapes that are then distributed among those who registered in the program. The most common mode is by videocassette. Class sessions on campus are recorded, and videocassettes are shipped by an express service to the off-campus location, where students view the recording at a convenient time in the presence of a tutor. A broadcast system is also available to deliver courses to groups of students by live television in classrooms at industrial and university sites.

This system provides an interesting experience in delivering distance education, training, and technology transfer opportunities across the State of Florida. Savings in bringing people together without having to leave their own communities or workplaces offer an attractive alternative to traditional formats of graduate education. Financing has been provided by the State of Florida; student tuition and fees match the standard rates of the participating university.

NETWORLDS IN CYBERSPACE

Over the last century and a half, communication technologies have brought fundamental transformation of society (Harasim, 1993). The slow communication alternatives across distance, with place-dependent human encounters (e.g., drums, messengers) have been replaced by fast and reliable computer-based technologies (Ives, 1991) that can simultaneously network people from places all over the world (e.g., telecommunications satellites).

The concept of a “global village,” introduced by M. McLuhan in the 1960's (Clarke, 1992) has become a reality that is being rapidly facilitated by global networking. Soon after ARPANET, the first large-scale packet switched network, was implemented in 1969, electronic mail was possible across the world. Today, global networks carried an overwhelming amount of information to millions of users on the planet. Thus, the telephone, computer, and satellite technologies have effectively combined to produce new modes of human interactions and societal activities. Effects are revolutionizing the fundamental concepts of speed and distance which is affecting the lives of every human being and community. For instance, “face-to-face” meetings can now be replaced by “on-line” meetings or in “cyberspace.”

Global networks (Harasim, 1993) currently include information and opportunities such as electronic mail, bulletin boards, and computer teleconferencing. Users interconnect locally, regionally, and globally for business, research, education, and social interaction. An individual can access a network with a personal computer linked by a modern to a computer network. The reach varies from an office area that has a local area network (LANs) to a wide area network (WANs), the basis of global networks. Their potential is great for electronic mail, computer conferencing, and televirtuality (Elbert, 1992).

Electronic mail or E-mail provides means for one-to-one or one-to-many communication. Main global networks are, among others, Internet, BITNET, USENET, and FidoNet. They are referred to as forming a matrix.

Internet connects more than two thousand smaller networks. It provides E-mail, bulletin boards, databases, library catalogs, chat lines, multiuser domains, discussion groups, and access to supercomputers by scientists and engineers. BITNET (Because It's Time Network) links academic institutions in more than thirty countries, supplying mailing lists, E-mail, and short-time interactions. USENET (User's Network) is a worldwide voluntary member network with connections to universities, government, business, and military sites. USENET offers a series of newsgroups or discussion groups. FidoNet is called the “people's network” because is mostly open to anyone at no cost. It connects six continents through E-mail, public conferences, and file transfers.

Computer teleconferencing offers opportunities for groups with various interests to communicate by text. Multimedia resources, that incorporate graphics, video and sound, are rapidly becoming available. Most interestingly, but still in development, is the potential of televirtuality, namely, the sharing of a three-dimensional space over a telecommunications network.

Overall, understanding the potential of networks is of utmost concern to establishing a hemispheric network to facilitate the implementation of water resources projects within a scope of sustainable development. In fact, education, training, and technology must consider the use of the new places for human interaction created by the connection of computers and computer networks. A new coined term refers to these new spaces as a networld (Harasim, 1993).

BARRIERS

The development of a hemispheric network can not happen without overcoming a number of barriers (Kasman, 1992; Maltezou, 1992). Barriers or differences can be generically grouped in four major categories: political, cultural, technical, and financial.

Political barriers are related to the lack of incentive, among country or community leaders and representatives, to acknowledge the importance of water resources projects. These could be particularly difficult in countries or communities where lack of education or other basic priorities and interests handicap governmental action and effective public participation.

Among the cultural barriers, an important issue is the widely spread use of English in current networks. Unless potential users learn English and other common languages or information is effectively translated to as many languages as possible, a very large sector of the continental population will remain isolated. In the American continent Spanish is definitely a priority language, followed by Portuguese.

Lack of formally educated individuals, at all levels of know-how, will create a technical challenge for the proper interpretation and application of easily available scientific and engineering information. Thus, mechanisms to provide education, within traditional formats, will be needed to prepare the human resources capable of implementing the potential of networks.

As Agenda 21 defines it, the developing countries will not be able to meet environmental and development goals without the provision of financial resources. Importantly, the cost of inaction would far outweigh the total financial costs of implementing Agenda 21, and narrow the choices of future generations as well. Conclusively, it has to be assumed that the sources of financing will meet their challenge. Sources include the Official Development Assistance from the developed countries; the International Development Association; regional and subregional development banks; United Nations bodies and other organizations; private funding; and reallocation of resources committed to military resources, among others.

GOALS AND TASKS

Acknowledging that timely and reliable information is essential for a sound management of water resources, a special meeting was organized within the VIIth World Congress on Water Resources held in May, 1991 (IWRA, 1991). The meeting identified a number of critical needs that are central to the development of sound information programs for water resources management. Because, education, training, and technology transfer are direct expressions of information systems, those critical needs can be articulated into a list of basic goals for the creation of a hemispheric network, as follows:

a) to recognize that a network is an efficient and cost-effective alternative to bring people and information together;

b) to link the hemisphere through existing world networks into a network that focuses on water resources management;

c) to develop and enhance capacity for networking in all nations of the continent with due consideration of political, cultural, technical, and financial barriers;

d) to make current and new information suited for networking as well as accessible at all levels of responsibility and needs in each country;

e) to establish minimum standards of quality and operation for information handling and networking;

f) to increase linkages among potential users, particularly high-level policy makers and technical personnel;

g) to improve cooperation and collaboration among governmental, private, and academic sectors, across disciplines involved in water resources management; and

h) to ensure commitment at the political and management levels, since this is essential for the viability and sustainability of a network, and interagency, interregional, and international exchange and sharing.

Consequently with the goals, the following tasks are presented as immediate steps to take this Inter-American Dialogue into an Inter-American Network on Water Management:

a) to establish a mechanism, such as a Task Force, Working Group or Steering Committee to address the goals noted above;

b) to promote the theme of networks in national and international agendas of water-related congresses, conferences, meetings, and workshops;

c) to promote inter-sectoral and inter-agency collaboration by providing fora to bring sectors and agencies together;

d) to sensitize high-level policy makers on the value of networks at national, regional, and international levels;

e) to develop and improve networking at national and regional levels through professional associations and/or other means;

f) to establish a principle of incorporating a network component as an integral part of all water resources initiatives/projects;

g) to develop guidelines for handling of water resources management information; and

h) to establish a principle of free information exchange.

In summary, a network to facilitate and enhance educational, training and technology transfer opportunities in the field of water resources projects is definitely a need. This need must be addressed if the hemisphere is to move forward to a sound management of water resources at the continental level, within a framework of sustainable development.

Attempts and experiences of networking in Latin America by initiatives in the various nations of the continent are encouraging. They also constitute a starting reference for future networking. Global networks offer a valuable resource to communicate across the Americas. They can be used by academia, industry, government, and the private sector to begin a permanent communication on water resources issues.

However, barriers exist that must be acknowledged and positively confronted with solutions. These barriers are of political, cultural, technical, and financial nature. They manifest themselves in lack of governmental priorities, language differences, educated and trained personnel, and above all, financial resources.

A number of goals and tasks are presented with the purpose of focusing efforts to facilitate the establishment of a network to be used in education, training and technology transfer. Efforts should provide opportunities for discussion, partnerships, and actions in support of the establishment of a hemispheric network.

Finally, the following statements are recommended for inclusion in the Miami Declaration:

Considering that

a) the present generations in the Americas have a responsibility to future generations; and
b) the nations of the American continent agreed on Agenda 21;
c) the Americas contain rich and unique freshwater resources;

It is recommended that

a) A continental network must be developed to facilitate and enhance education, training, and technology transfer in the field of water resources;

b) The nations must work to create needed political incentive, simultaneously reducing any cultural, technical and financial barriers, so that the potential of a network is fully developed.

c) Organize a Task Group, Working Group, or Steering Committee whose major responsibility will be to develop a plan of goals and tasks to establish the network. The Group or Committee must have representation from all the participating nations of the American Continent.

REFERENCES

AWWA, 1992. Water for People. Brochure, American Water Works Association. Denver, Colorado.

Clarke, A.C. 1992. How the World Was One: Beyond the Global Village. Batham Books, New York, New York.

Elbert, B. 1992. Networking Strategies for Information Technology. Artech House, Norwood, Massachusetts.

FIU, 1993. Engineering/Professional Development FEEDS Approved Policies and Procedures. College of Engineering and Design, Florida International University, Miami, Florida.

Gilbrich, W.H. 1991. 25 years of UNESCO's Programme in Hydrological Education under IHD/IHP. UNESCO, Paris, France.

Harasim, L. M. 1993. Global Networks. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

IWRA, 1991. Information Systems for Water Management. Water International 16:241-242.

Ives, S. R. 1991. Managing Information Networks. Reed Business Publishing, England.

Kasman, M. S. 1992. Economic and Legal Barriers to the Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technologies to Developing Countries. Pp. 162-169 in UNESCO, ed., Environmentally Sound Technology for Sustainable Development, ATAS Bulletin, Issue 7, United Nations Publications, New York.

Maltezou, S. P. 1992. Constraints on Clean Technology Transfer to Developing Countries. Pp. 170-174 in UNESCO, ed., Environmentally Sound Technology for Sustainable Development, ATAS Bulletin, Issue 7, United Nations, New York.

Miller, J. S. 1992. Hydrology and Water Resources Education and Training: The CUIDES Response. Pp. 277-284 in J. A. Reynal, ed., Hydrology and Water Resources Education, Training and Management, Water Resources Publications, Littleton, Colorado.

UM, 1993. INFO-SOUTH Latin American Information System. Pamphlet, Florida International University, Miami, Florida.

UNM, 1992. LADB, Latin America Data Base. Brochure, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

United Nations, 1993. The Global Partnership for Environment and Development: A Guide to Agenda 21. United Nations, New York, New York.

APPENDIX

In order to continue the Dialogue, Florida International University (FIU) through the Environmental Engineering Program, has created an E-mail address or repository to build an electronic mailing list of interested parties, H2ONET.

To subscribe to the mailing list send a message to the following address:

H2ONET@ENG.FIU.EDU

subscribe to H2ONET.

Priority Regions in Latin America for Water Management

Phillip Z. Kirpich¹

¹ Consulting Engineer, The World Bank (retired), 20 Island Ave. 1418, Miami Beach, FL 33139, USA

When considering the water-management problems of the various regions of Latin America, it is advantageous to establish relative priorities. There are two main reasons for this: (1) The urgency for economic/social development that depends on the water resource is high in some regions but less so in others; and (2) Qualified manpower and funds are in short supply.

In this paper, the author discusses the situation in seven regions that he believes have high priority in the short or medium term. He also reaches some preliminary conclusions with respect to other regions that may have priority in the medium or long term.

The brief descriptions of the seven regions include preliminary answers to the following questions:

· What steps should now be taken?
· What can be learned from the region's history up to the present?
· What help from outside the regions would be useful?

A particular region has been selected for priority if the answers are affirmative to all of the following three questions:

· Is water control critical to sustainable development of the region?

· Does the region contain a large population as compared with other regions in Latin America?

· Is it feasible to achieve substantial progress toward sustainable development in the medium term (10 to 20 years)?

· Mexico, the Gulf Coast;
· Colombia, the Upper Cauca Valley;
· Ecuador, the Lower Guayas Valley;
· Brazil, the Northeast;
· Peru, the Coast;
· Chile, the Santiago region; and
· Colombia, the lower Cauca and Magdalena Valleys.

The author's judgements regarding the foregoing questions have been based on numerous visits to the regions listed. Except for Brazil, the visits were in the form of “missions” for the World Bank, when he acted as mission leader. The missions were for various purposes including: regional resource planning (as a prelude to specific project planning), project pre-appraisal and appraisal, and agricultural-sector review.

In the case of Brazil, the missions, of which there were four, were on behalf of the Organization of American States (OAS); in two of these, the author was a member of a multi-disciplinary team including economists and agronomists. In the case of Colombia, he resided in Cali 1955-62 when he acted as Chief Engineer for the regional autonomous corporation (see description below); he also headed two subsequent World Bank mission to the country. In the case of Peru, in addition to numerous missions for the World Bank, he was engaged in 1987-88 by the Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau (KfW) of Germany for pre-appraisal of a loan for rehabilitation of a large irrigation project in the Coast; however, despite several months of work, the project was cancelled owing to the ongoing political instability.

Mexico: Gulf Coast

Mexico has 5 million ha under irrigation; these lands are primarily in the semiarid Pacific Coast and the Central Plateau. There is little additional land that Mexico can develop for intensive, irrigated agriculture. Yet, to meet its growing need for food and fiber, both for domestic consumption and for export, it is imperative that Mexico increase its agricultural production.

The tropical-humid Gulf Coast is greatly underutilized. This region has generally good soils and ample rainfall generally exceeding 1500 mm (Comision del Plan Nacional Hidraulico 1981); see Map 1. The first need is for drainage, sometimes with and sometimes without flood control.

The main reason for the current state of underdevelopment is the prevailing landholding pattern. The land is held in large cattle ranches. The ranch owners are enabled by Mexican law to utilize the land at a low carrying capacity per animal. The ranch owners, who exert much political weight, are moreover opposed to water-control projects (whether irrigation or drainage) since under Mexican law, when such projects are financed by the state, there is a limit to the size of landholding - generally not more than 10 or 20 ha.

Mexico completed a first version of a National Water Plan in 1975 with assistance from the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). In both the 1975 version and an updated one (in 1981) attention was given to the Gulf Coast. A program called “El programa de desarrollo rural integrado para el tropico humedo” (PRODERITH) followed. The World Bank financed a substantial part of it and implementation proceeded beginning in 1978. Technical assistance was provided by the indigenous agricultural-research agencies, by the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the UN. The first phase of PRODERITH, achieved by 1984, covered 100,000 ha involving 30,000 small farmers. The first phase was judged to be a success and a second phase is under execution (Comision del Plan Nacional Hidraulico 1985). It is judged that the program needs considerable acceleration but this appears to be impeded by continued opposition by the ranchers.

An earlier project in the region called “Plan Chontalpa” was initiated in 1966 with financial assistance from the Inter-American Development Bank. It covered 75,000 ha. The project had mixed success, apparently due to inadequate planning for flood control and drainage.

Most of Mexico's petroleum deposits are in the Gulf Coast and the region already possesses considerable infrastructure in the form of roads and major dams (for hydroelectric generation, for flood control and, to a limited extent, for irrigation).

How could outside help assist Mexico in achieving adequate sustainable development of its Gulf Coast? Bearing in mind that, with respect to human capital, Mexico's engineers, agronomists and economists are first rate, help in these fields is hardly needed. As mentioned above, the impediments are mainly of a socio-economic (and therefore political as well) nature. Outside help should be through the citation of examples showing how these aspects were handled as in the Cauca Valley in Colombia (see below) and in the water management districts of Florida.

Because of their detailed knowledge of the Gulf Coast as well as of the various water-related sectors of Mexico (besides agriculture, these include energy, domestic and industrial water supply and the ecology), staff of the World Bank should be contacted and asked to cooperate.

Colombia: Upper Cauca Valley

The Corporacion Autonoma Regional del Cauca is also known as the CVC, these being the initials of Cauca, Valle and Caldas, the three departamentos (provinces) of Colombia concerned. The thinking in 1954, when CVC was established, was that it would function as a river basin authority along the lines of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) of the United States. David Lilientahl, a former Director of TVA, was called in to advise CVC.

To finance its initial operations, CVC was able to get national and provincial approval for a 4 per mil land tax despite opposition by some of the large landowners in the valley. Electric-utility companies were also opposed as they felt threatened. However, the view of the more forward looking, including many large landowners, prevailed (Posada and Posada 1966). CVC is now viewed by many Latin American pundits as a model to be emulated.

In the 1960s and 1970s, CVC was able to carry out several large-scale and noteworthy projects and was able to secure funding from national and international sources including the World Bank and the government of Japan. The projects included two major dams for hydroelectricity, flood control and water conservation; a high-voltage transmission network; a 5,000 ha drainage and flood control project adjoining Cali that more than doubled the land available for urbanization; and an irrigation and drainage project covering 11,200 ha and which was supported financially by the Instituto Colombiano de la Reforma Agraria (INCORA) (Kirpich/Ospina 1959). See Map 2.

Cali in 1955 was a city of about 250,000. Today its population exceeds 1,600,000. Like many other Latin American cities, the growth of Cali has been explosive owing to in-migration of the rural poor. As could be expected, problems of sewage and waste disposal have arisen (Ridgley 1989).

The existing dams provide a degree of flood protection which however has to be supplemented by diking as at Cali. Poor drainage of the lower-lying areas also needs further attention. Near the town of Buga, a sizeable lake, which serves as a refuge for migratory birds, needs improvement and preservation. See Map 3.

Further development of the valley needs further detailed studies which become more complex than heretofore owing to competing demands for water, the need to protect water quality and environmental concerns. The latter include the bird refuge and the disposal of wastes from agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, from a large number of sugar refineries and from industries, including a large paper mill and a large tire factory, both near Cali.

The cropping pattern in the fertile Cauca Valley needs upgrading in the medium and long term. Much land is still in low-intensive cattle production, and the large percentage in sugarcane, a high-volume water consumer, should be lowered. The major international agricultural research center CIAT (Centro Internacional para la Agricultura Tropical), which is in the Upper Cauca Valley, could assist in determining the manner and timing of changes in the cropping pattern.

CVC has been in contact - and will no doubt continue - with the agencies listed in the table. With respect to the international banks, the departments of these banks that deal with the environment and with agriculture should, in particular, be contacted. As indicated above, the Upper Cauca Valley of Colombia can be presented as an example, many of whose features can be copied elsewhere in Latin America.

Ecuador: Lower Guayas Valley

Ecuador has basically two agricultural regions: the “Sierra” and the “Costa”. The small valleys in the mountainous Sierra are fully exploited. The flatlands of the Costa, mainly located in the delta of the Guayas River, are greatly underutilized. See Maps 4 and 5.

The two principal urban centers of the country are Quito, the capital, located in the Sierra, and Guayaquil, the country's main port. The latter with a population of over a million is about 50% larger than Quito. Both cities, but especially Guayaquil, are growing rapidly owing to in-migration of the rural poor.

The Comision de Estudios para el Desarrollo de la Cuenca de Guayas (CEDEGE) has been active since about 1970. In the early 1970s, CEDEGE's directors promoted the construction of the Daule-Peripa dam, which they claimed would bring great benefit to the Lower Guayas Valley and to the adjoining but distant Santa Helena peninsula where rainfall is only about 200 mm (compares with about 1500 mm in the Lower Guayas). CEDEGE applied to the World Bank for the financing of the Daule-Peripa dam but was turned down on the grounds that it would be far more beneficial to concentrate on the drainage and flood control problems of the Lower Guayas Valley and that, at a later stage, water for supplemental irrigation could be obtained from groundwater. However, CEDEGE persisted and was able to obtain financing for Daule-Peripa from the Inter-American Development Bank.

The Daule-Peripa dam was completed but the drainage and flooding continued to be serious. The continued construction of major roads traversing the region, built without consideration of drainage needs, have exacerbated the drainage problems. The clearing of important mangrove forests for construction of shrimp ponds presents another serious environmental problem.

In 1987, based on a grant from the Government of the Netherlands, a consulting firm of that nationality began work on a feasibility study. Time had been lost during the preceding years owing to disagreements between CEDEGE and the Instituto Ecuatoriano de Recursos Hidraulicos (INERHI), mainly with regard to which agency would be responsible for the study. Completion of the study, intended for 1988, was not achieved until 1990; the delay was due in part to environmental concerns which led to the preparation of an environmental impact statement.

The project would constitute a first-phase development of the Lower Guayas Valley. The project would proved flood protection to 184,000 ha, within which: drainage-improvement works for 60,500 ha; an Agricultural Development Plan for about 3,300 smallholders (less than 10 ha) with provisions for on-farm investment and strengthening of small-farmers' organizations; and various environmental and conservation initiatives.

Financing of about two-thirds of the overall cost of the project is expected to be provided by the World Bank and the Government of the Netherlands (Ochs and Wittenberg 1992).

Brazil: The Northeast

Northeast Brazil (see Map 5) covers a vast area, three times the size of France. With a fifth of the area of all of Brazil, the Northeast Region has a population of about 46,000,000 or about 30% of Brazil's population of 158,000,000 (1991).

The region is drought-prone. The 1992-93 drought is the worst in 40 years (Economist 1993). See Map 6. In Pernambuco, the driest of the eight states in the region, reservoirs have not filled since 1960. The drought has impaired not only water quantity but also water quality, causing spread of disease including cholera. Livestock are also suffering greatly.

In the past, families would leave the region at times of drought to work on rubber-tree tapping in the Amazon jungle or would migrate to the industrial cities of the south such as Sao Paulo. These exits are no longer available and, instead, poor peasants drift to the cities and towns of the region where slums are proliferating.

The Sao Francisco Valley, located in the middle of the region, is an exception. Major dams and reservoirs have been constructed, primarily for energy generation but with beneficial side-effects through flood control and irrigation. The World Bank has financed a polder-type project in the delta of the Sao Francisco River. The author visited the region in 1979 on behalf of the OAS when he prepared terms of reference for long-range studies of the Sao Francisco River basin. He was told at the time that the goal was to achieve 819,000 ha of irrigation by the year 2000, although a more realistic goal would be 500,000 ha.

Clearly, the Northeast Region continues to present a serious problem for Brazilian politicians and planners. Its solution is compounded by the large disparity in the size of landholdings, by the high degree of illiteracy and by the variation in physical conditions. Most of the region is semi-arid to arid but there are also sub-regions that suffer from flooding and poor drainage. In the semi-arid portions of the region, significant studies of water availability have been started only for the Sao Francisco River basin. Elsewhere, there is only anecdotal evidence which indicates that water, whether from surface or underground sources, is likely to be scarce.

Brazilian water-resource planners could benefit from efforts elsewhere in the world under similar physical and socio-economic conditions for which, unfortunately, there are no examples in the Americas. Pertinent examples of adequate size and scope can perhaps be found in China and India.

All of the agencies listed in the table have a strong interest in the development of Brazil's Northeast. The UNDP, in particular, should be invited to play a key role in guiding and financing the numerous studies and negotiations required in order to achieve sound development.

Peru: The Coast

The “Selva” (rainforest in the Amazon River basin) has practically no agricultural value. The “Sierra” (mountains) has some (limited) value but is almost fully exploited. On the border between the Sierra and the Selva, is found a zone devoted to cultivation of coca, a primary source of the cocaine ending up on the streets of the cities of the United States.

The “Costa” of Peru provides over 70% of Peru's marketed agriculture and in the past two decades has absorbed over two-thirds of the public-sector investment in agriculture. There are about 750,000 ha of irrigated land in the Costa of which a third to a half suffers from varying degrees of excess salinity and waterlogging due to poor drainage and misuse of water.

Correction of this condition, and the arrest of further deterioration requires: (a) a program of rehabilitation to remove the most important bottlenecks of infrastructure (basically drainage works); and (b) the establishment of irrigation-district authorities in rehabilitated areas in order to preserve the effectiveness of past investments and carry out effective operation and maintenance.

Concurrent with rehabilitation of the irrigated zones of the Costa, several structural reform Policies are urgent according to several observers. These include:

1. Changing the role of cooperatives (especially the sugar cooperatives from producer to service cooperatives).

2. Removing the uncertainties that still remain with respect to land reform which has severely reduced the role of private enterprise.

3. Improving standards of the Banco Agrario del Peru whereby negative interest rates provide windfall profits to a privileged few.

Some irrigation rehabilitation projects were approved by the World Bank while the author was still there in the late 1970s. Relations between Peru and the World Bank deteriorated after that but are now being restored.

Pressure has most likely continued from local interests for construction of mammoth projects for trans-Andean water diversions. An example is the long-debated Majes project that would presumably benefit lands adjacent to the city of Arequipa. Such pressures should be resisted as the priority for Peru should be to rehabilitate and secure the proper operation and use of its existing irrigation projects.

The World Bank in the mid-1970s provided some assistance to Peru in the form of technical assistance for study of a major hydroelectric complex in the Andes Mountains east of Lima and which would be of benefit as well to the city of Lima for augmentation of its domestic water supply.

Peru is important to the United States for several reasons:

· It is a major source of drugs. Its poor social and economic conditions, which have been exploited by the Shining Path guerrillas, have been a source of serious political instability in the hemisphere.

· It could be a major market for U.S. exports.

Chile: Santiago Region

In the mid-1970s, the World Bank was asked to help with respect to water-related problems of the Santiago region. Competition for scarce water was arising between use for domestic water supply and for irrigation. Domestic sewage was being used for irrigation and this was causing health problems.

Following two missions to the country that the author headed, the Bank agreed to finance a feasibility study which was carried out by a U.S. consulting firm.

The region, which includes the three cities listed in the table, is rather complex from a water-planning point of view, and it is doubtful whether the water-related problems have been fully or adequately sorted out. According to the UN as quoted in a recent article (Bartone 1990), the population of the Santiago urban area was 4.2 million in 1985 and is expected to reach 5.3 million in 2000.

Colombia: Lower Cauca/Magdalena Valleys

Despite its extent, Colombia has limited areas of good to high-quality land for agriculture. The Lower Cauca/Magdalena Valleys contain large areas that are either already of good quality or can be raised to that level through artificial means, that is, through flood control and drainage works. In planning such works, it would obviously be essential to consider environmental features with respect to wildlife and pollution.

Some such development, although limited thus far, has already taken place not far from the Caribbean port cities of Barranquilla, Cartagena and Santa Marta. (The upper part of the region is adjacent to Medellin, Colombia's second city, with a population of 2.2 million.) In the late 1970s, the Government of Colombia expressed an interest in development of the region and obtained some technical assistance from the Netherlands Government for this purpose. On that occasion, the World Bank also sent a mission, headed by the author.

A good source of information with respect to the current status of the region would be Carlos S. Ospina, head of a consulting firm “INGETEC” of Bogota. Mr. Ospina is an eminent Colombia engineer recently honored by the American Society of Civil Engineers and has familiarity with all aspects of water-resource Planning in Colombia.

Other Regions

Other regions will no doubt be suggested but are not likely to have a relatively high priority, at least in the short term. These are described briefly in the rest of this paper.

Brazil: The Pantanal

This vast wetland of 469,000 km² has an extent about 40 times that of the Everglades! Half of the Pantanal is in a remote southwestern comer of Brazil, with the other half in Paraguay (see Map 7). The Pantanal has rich