Chapter 6 - Wildlife

Wildlife exploitation: Goods
Wildlife exploitation: Services
Wildlife exploitation: Management
Conflicts and compatibility between wildlife conservation and use and other activities
Areas of compatibility between the wildlife sector and other sectors
Bibliography

The fauna of the Peruvian Central Selva is representative, in qualitative terms, of the fauna in other American humid tropical forests. But the numbers and varities of species here are peculiar to the Selva alone because of the mountainous and man-made ecosystems found here.

The vast majority of wildlife in the region consists of invertebrates, including perhaps as many as two million insect species and a much smaller number of vertebrates (some 250 species of mammals, 1,200 species of birds, and 300 species of reptiles and batrachians). As many as 85 percent of the birds and 82 percent of the neotropical mammals may be endemic to this region alone.

Another characteristic of the fauna in the American humid tropics is its great diversity, with impressive numbers of species occurring in small areas. This diversity is generally accompanied by a reduced number of individuals of each species found in a given region.

Overall, mammals here are small in comparison with those found in the Asiatic and African humid tropics. The heaviest animal is the tapir which hardly reaches 300 kg in weight. Peccaries weigh 20-30 kg, while deer weigh 16-21 kg. Similarly, terrestrial vertebrate biomass is low, averaging 10-30 kg per hectare. The remainder of the animal biomass is made up of invertebrates such as acarids, soil collenbola, ants, and termites, and can be less than 200 kg/ha (Fittkau and Klinge, 1973).

Wildlife exploitation: Goods

Food for Human Consumption

Meat is one of the principal goods provided by wildlife in the Central Selva as well as in other localities in the American humid tropics. Studies carried out in Peru and Brazil have demonstrated that hunting provides rural inhabitants with from 10-465 grams per capita of fresh meat daily (Berlin and Berlin, 1978; Denevan, 1971; Smith, 1976; Pierret and Dourojeanni, 1967; Rios, et al, 1973). Some of the highest and lowest numbers refer to the Central Selva: only 10 grams per capita are consumed daily by the Campa natives from the Gran Pajonal region (Denevan, 1971), and 465 grams daily by colonists from the Pachitea river area (Pierret and Dourojeanni, 1966). More recently, Gaviria (1980) recorded a daily consumption of 108 grams among the Campas in the Pichis river region. Taking into account the fact that fresh fish provides approximately half of the protein supplied by the same weight of fresh meat, it can be seen that hunting contributes 34-40 percent of the protein consumed in the Peruvian Amazonia (Table 6-1). This is slightly less than the protein contribution of fish and much more than that supplied by poultry, swine, and sheep.

Table 6-1
CONSUMPTION OF MEAT FROM WILD ANIMALS AND OTHER SOURCES IN PERUVIAN AMAZONIA (In grams of fresh meat per capita per day)

Although approximately 100 species are consumed by natives, and 60 by colonists, only some 15 species are consumed frequently (Table 6-2). Of these, Cuniculus paca, Tayassu tajacu, Tayassu pecan, Geochelone denticulata, Dasyprocta variegata, and Mazama americana account for 70 percent of wild animal consumption. The contribution of small game is equal to or slightly greater than that of big game.

Preferred meat comes from the monkeys Ateles and Lagothrix, the agouties (Cuniculus and Dasyprocta) and some birds (Penelope and Mitre). Also appreciated is the meat from peccaries (Tayassu) and deer (Mazama). In contrast, the meat from tapir (Tapirus terrestris) and capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) are held in low esteem, although exceptions to this attitude are known: the capybara is very popular in Venezuela (Ojasti, 1971).

Terrestrial invertebrates can represent 3-7 percent of the animal protein consumed by natives and less of that consumed by colonists. Appreciated are coleoptera larvae found in the palms Rhynchophorus and Rhinostomas and caterpillars of several lepidoptera, as well as the queens of the ants Atta and Acromyrmex. Various terrestrial molluscs, such as those belonging to the genus Strophocheilus, are also eaten (Dourojeanni, 1965).

Table 6-2
CONTRIBUTIONS OF FAUNA TO THE DIETS OF RURAL POPULATIONS IN PERUVIAN AMAZONIA (In percentage)

The most avidly-sought eggs in the American humid tropics belong to the river turtles Podocnemis expansa, P. unifilis, and P. sextuberculata (Mittermeier, 1978; Ojasti and Rutkis, 1965,1967; Padua, 1981), but crocodile, tortoise, and some bird eggs are also exploited.

Honey from the wild bees Melipona and Trigona is used by natives and colonists, both directly and mixed with spirits. Some knowledgeable rural people obtain oil from the river frogs Inia and Sotalia, as well as small quantities from animals hunted for their meat. Colonists in the mountains obtain oil from the young of the oilbird, Steatornis caripensis, taking them from their nests in caves.

Skins and Hides

The best known and most abundant hides come from peccaries (Tayassu tajacu and Tayassu pecan), deer (Mazama americana and M. gouazoubira), crocodiles (Melanosuchus niger and Caiman crocodylus) and capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). The greatest number of skins, and the most desired ones, come from the ocelot, Felis pardalis; otter, Lutra amazonica, kinkajou, Potos flavus; margay cat, Felis wiedii, jaguar, Panthera onca; and giant otter, Pteronura brasiliensis. From 1965 to 1976 475,000 skins and more than 5 million hides were legally exported from Peru (Peru, 1977) while contraband and customs underevaluations, along with poor grade specimens, could easily account for as many more (Dourojeanni, 1972).

Live Animals

A considerable number of live animals are captured and exported for decorative purposes and to serve as household pets. Most of these are birds belonging to family Psitacidae, parrots and their kin, but monkeys and other animals are also exported. In 1964 27,837 Psitacidae and 1,808 other birds left Iquitos for other parts of Peru, while 2,491 more were exported directly, as were 36,000 monkeys.

Primates are frequently used in scientific research, usually in biomedical studies in developed countries. Whitney (1976) points out, however, that of the 47,345 South American primates entering the United States in 1972, only 11,300 were destined for biomedical research, of which one half were Saimiri sciureus followed by Aotus trivirgatus and Saiguinus mystax. World demand for neotropical primates for this purpose could reach approximately 29,000 animals by the year 2000, most of which will be Saimiri, Saiguinus, Cebuella, Cebus, Calithrix, and Aotus. Other species are also used, including armadillos (Dasypus), oppossums (Didelphis), and peccaries (Tayassu). Many live captured animals are exported annually to zoos (an average of 150 species a year with different ones being exported each year) while circuses have more selective demands, particulaly for spectacled bears, Tremarctos ornatus, jaguars, and other spectacular animals. Present demand for live animals from the humid tropics for domestication purposes is limited, but could increase, notably for animals belonging to the genera Cuniculus, Dasyprocta, Tayassu, and Tapirus.

Interest in some vertebrates and invertebrates - especially insects - is growing because of the increasing importance of biological control of pests to agriculture and livestock development in the world's humid tropics.

Cottage Industry Products

Natives, colonists, local speculators, merchants, artisans, exporters and importers use diverse wildlife products, including feathers for fans, arrows, and headbands; beaks and cat teeth for necklaces and amulets; bones from many species for necklaces, arms, musical instruments and decorative objects: the feet and claws of felines and primates for amulets; tortoise and armadillo carapaces for musical instruments, and mounted bird and mammal specimens. Insects used include lepidoptera (Morpho and others), used in pictures, brightly-colored wings of scarab beetles, and specimens of the harlequin beetle Acrocinus longimanus and Laternaria beetles of the family Fulgoridae. One Laternaria beetle cost US$9 in 1964 in Tingo Maria.

Traditional Medicine and Magic

Serpents, frogs, and toads are considered to be of great value to local populations, especially among natives and old colonists, in traditional medicine and magic. Dolphins and procyonids (Procyon) among others are sought for the supposed aphrodisiac and magical qualities of some of their organs.

Medical Investigation

The armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus, known as the "carachupa," has been selected for medical research because of its low body temperature (32-34° C), and because a large number of these animals become sick with systemic leprosy while others are not affected by the disease. This is considered a model animal for studies of susceptibility and resistance. To obtain an idea of the animal's importance, it is estimated that a gram of infected armadillo tissue contains between 109 and 1,010 bacilli that can be isolated in a pure form. With such an enormous accessible bacterial population, preventive and curative vaccines have been produced and an antigen prepared that can help improve the condition of seriously ill patients and prevent those living with afflicted individuals from catching the disease.

Primates have become enormously significant in medical studies. Some monkeys, such as the pichico Saguinus fuscicollis, are widely distributed in Amazonia and are quite important in cancer research and arteriosclerosis investigations. The musmuqui, Aotus trivirgatus, is being utilized in human malaria studies because it is capable of becoming infected with Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum, and with P. malaria. Occasionally, epizootics of yellow fever can occur in Alouatta monkeys, causing high mortality; other monkeys, including Atetes, Saimiri, Cebus, Callicebus, Saguinus, and Aotus, are also susceptible. All these animals are important because they can be used for more complete investigations of parasites, host reactions, chemotherapy treatments, and immunization tests.

Important studies now being conducted with monkeys focus on human hepatitis A. Saguinus mystax is used as an experimental model for serological tests for application in diagnosis and in epidemiological studies that can be useful in controlling and preventing this disease. This monkey can also help produce standard human immune globulins for hepatitis A vaccines while titi monkeys have been used in developing vaccines for hepatitis B. Not surprisingly, so many monkeys have been harvested in recent times that legal measures prohibiting their exportation have become necessary.

While biomedical investigation with fauna is flourishing, more direct research is needed into jungle animals that serve as reservoirs of parasites, bacteria, and fungi. It is important to know, for example, if the perezozo (sloth), the Myrmecophaga tridactyla, (giant anteater), and the Tamandua tetradactyla (lesser anteater), play an important role in leishmaniasis. We also need to know whether the tigrillo or ocelote, Felis pardalis, as well as other felines in Amazonia, are definitive hosts in the toxoplasm cycle, which would explain the high incidence of jungle toxoplasmosis.

Venomous snakes are important to pharmacology and medicine. The Aguaruna-Huambisha Community has attempted to breed snakes for commercial venom extraction and the development of mono- or polyvalent sera. The Department of Venomous Animals of the National Health Institute is constructing, with international assistance, a breeding facility in Pucallpa. This facility, in the animal's natural environment, shows great promise in producing more potent venoms and more effective sera.

Because there is such a large variety of venoms from Peruvian snakes, it is necessary experimentally to determine their pharmacological effects. Fourteen Micrurus and more than 11 Bothrops species exist, in addition to the unique species of the genus Lachesis, L. muta, and the rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus terrificus, in Puno Department. More information also needs to be gathered about Peruvian scorpions, although preliminary research indicates that they do not cause serious health problems. Little is known about the chilopods or centipedes beyond a few clinical descriptions, as well as the bites of ants and wasps, and the urticant action of the hairs of some caterpillars.

Collection

Considerable collection of all types of animals occurs for scientific purposes, especially for taxonomic studies. As much of this activity is not carried out by scientists it can be profitable for its purveyors. Many collected animals, particularly insects, are sold to hobbyists, while the heads and skins of jaguars, pumas, spectacled bears and occasionally tapirs are sought as hunting trophies.

Wildlife exploitation: Services

Wildlife's role in natural cycles is of transcendental importance, particularly the role invertebrates play in recycling organic matter. The evolution of flora and fauna depends on selection pressure applied by the animals that feed on, compete with, and interact in other ways with them. Regulating population densities of plants is also a crucial role for animals, one essential for maintaining natural genetic diversity.

Many economically important plants cannot prosper in the absence of pollinating insects and birds that sometimes are quite species-specific. For example, the Brazil nut tree, Bertholletia excelsa, depends on wild bees for pollination, as do numerous domesticated fruit trees. Many other wild plant seeds must pass through animals' digestive tracts before germinating.

Such animals as otters, giant otters, and crocodiles keep fish populations stable by eating the old, the sick, and the weak; terrestrial predators fill the same role with their prey species. Large crocodiles and capybara populations that used to inhabit some water courses seem to have helped sustain some fish stocks with their excrement. Both aquatic and terrestrial insects are an important food source for fish.

Wildlife in the humid tropics is an important tourist attraction, of both conventional and scientific, and foreign and domestic interest. Although not as spectacular as African wildlife, the fauna of the American humid tropics is famous for its diversity.

The animals of the American humid tropics are less frequently hunted for sport than wildlife in other parts of the world, because of both the low number of potential trophies and also the difficulty of hunting where there is low visibility, where the animals have nocturnal habits, and where there are bothersome insects and high temperatures. Nevertheless, they do attract some local, national, and foreign hunters. Small game species include birds, primates, rodents, armadillos and others; while peccary, tapir, and deer are sought-after big game.

Religious and moral beliefs have given human beings a profound sense of responsibility for the survival of their species. But the species most in danger of extinction today are often those most economically valuable to man. Table 6-3 presents a still incomplete list of those species in danger of becoming extinct in the Central Selva and in other parts of the American humid tropics.

Wildlife exploitation: Management

Since exploitation of wildlife varies in intensity, the degree of management can also vary; extensive, intensive, and superintensive alternatives can all be carried out (Table 6-4).

Extensive management refers to harvesting wildlife in the absence of a reliable census. Significant ecosystem manipulation is not usual, although some can be accomplished when done in concert with forest management. Low cost wildlife habitat management may also be achieved in woodlots on agriculture and range land. It is frequently the only type of management successfully implemented in the humid tropics. It can be carried out at regional or local levels and can incorporate hunting quotas according to sex and species, hunting seasons, hunting restrictions, minimum size requirement, arms and munitions regulations, and regulating traps and other capture methods.

Intensive management is implemented when it is possible to measure animal populations with some degree of accuracy and when it is cost-effective. I n humid tropical forests such management is applied only on small and isolated tracts of land and along water courses. Censuses, like all other advanced techniques, are justified when they are part of a package that includes significant environmental manipulation to control natural enemies, favoring vegetation that supplies wildlife food and cover, creating special breeding conditions, providing minor elements, etc. While hunting quotas in extensive management should be conservative, intensive management allows more precise adjustment according to biotic potential and is therefore more effective.

Table 6-3
FAUNAL SPECIES PROTECTED BY PERUVIAN LAW IN THE CENTRAL SELVA

Management for Tourism

Fauna in the humid tropics can be managed primarily to enable them to be encountered by tourists. For instance, in Manu National Park animals can be gradually accustomed to human presence at the salt licks and watering holes where they usually congregate. Artificial illumination may allow observation of nocturnal activity while animals can also be attracted with salt and food to locations where they can easily be seen.

Conflicts and compatibility between wildlife conservation and use and other activities

Conflicts and compatiblity will depend on the degree of wildlife management underway, and the interests of the parties to the conflict. For example, a type of indirect conflict is the intervention of preservationists and conservationists to change or stop projects for the sake of the local or global survival of wildlife species.

Conflicts with Forestry Activity

In both wild and controlled forests wildlife can damage natural and man-induced plant regeneration. Insects damage seeds, seedlings, leaves, flowers, fruits, buds, bark, and trunks causing death, retarded growth, and reduction of the quality of forest products (Table 6-6). Well known examples are the shoot borer that attacks Meliaceae (Hypsipyla grandella), ants of the genus Atta, Curculionidae, Cerambycidae, Scolytidae, and many Lepidopterae. Other invertebrates and a few vertebrates also are plant pests. Insects can reduce the durability and quality of wood and other forest products. Principal culprits include termites, ambrosia beetles (Scolytidae and Platypodidae) and wood borers (Lyctidae, Bostrychidae, and Anobiidae). Damage to trees can also be done by deer rubbing their antlers, carnivores scraping their claws, and other animals gnawing on plants.

Forestry activity can of course have an enormous effect on wildlife - principally habitat alteration and destruction. The impact on wildlife will vary directly with the amount of timber harvested. While we know that forest clearing can benefit herbivores and, therefore, carnivores because grasses grow in the cleared areas, too much selective harvest can completely eliminate certain species of invertebrates and inconspicuous vertebrates. Wildlife habitat can be reduced by clear-cutting and other super-intensive harvesting methods, and by cutting forests that adjoin rivers, streams, lagoons, and colpas (salt licks where animals congregate to obtain minerals).

Inventories, road construction, cutting trees into logs, dragging and transporting them all can seriously disturb vertebrates, destroy bird nests and young, and trample reptiles and mammals, especially nocturnal species. If timber is extracted as part of a management program that allows the forests to recuperate, damage is minimal. If, however, forest exploitation is uncontrolled, as is frequently the case, damage is serious and long-lasting.

Conflicts with Agriculture

The most common conflicts are caused by both invertebrate and vertebrate pests attracted by crops. Wildlife management in ecotones and in woodlots in agricultural areas unquestionably can create some problems. These can include damage caused to agricultural crops, such as when Dasyproctidae attack manioc and monkeys and parrots eat bananas, papayas, corn, and cacao; damage to crops caused by the birds and rodents that find refuge in woodlots; damage to animals in pens, particularly poultry, caused by small predators that are either the focus of management, such as ocelot, or that are not, such as the Tayra eira barbara, various Didelphidae (Glironia, Marmosa, Philander, and Didelphis), and Nasua nasua and other Procyonidae; damage to livestock caused by diseases of which wildlife are the reservoirs, and by attacks of vampire bats, Desmodus rotundus. Deciding not to manage wildlife in woodlots and grasslands will not solve these problems, because rodents and injurious birds will proliferate even without forests nearby, due to the enormous abundance of food provided them by agriculture. Populations of small predators can also increase because prey such as poultry is available. Furthermore, in all colonies, abundant purma woodlots exist, as a consequence of shifting agriculture.

But the most serious conflict between the agriculture and wildlife sectors is habitat destruction. In the last 50 years more than six million hectares of Peruvian forest have been removed to make room for agriculture and livestock. At present, deforestation in Peru is proceeding at a rate of 250,000 hectares a year. In all of tropical America, 4,337,000 hectares of forest are being converted annually (FAO/UNEP, 1981).

Agriculture pesticide and fertilizer use can also be indirectly detrimental to wildlife. These contaminants can enter wildlife habitat through runoff, percolation to the ground water, and currents of air. Soil erosion caused by agriculture can pollute water courses and pesticides can produce explosive population increases of pests when they unintentionally destroy beneficial species.

Conflicts with Livestock

Many pests, particularly insects and acarids, can damage natural and cultivated grasses. Wildlife can also act as reservoirs for diseases that can affect livestock. Of these diseases, the best known in the tropics is rabies, which is maintained in various wild animal species, including bats. Deer can harbor hoof and mouth disease, while numerous insects, acarids, and other invertebrates act as livestock disease vectors.

Table 6-6
PRINCIPAL TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE SPECIES CAPABLE OF CAUSING PROBLEMS IN THE CENTRAL SELVA

Multiple Use

Multiple use of forests, grassland, and aquatic ecosystems is economically desirable, as it optimizes the use of diverse resources. On the other hand, it is often technically and economically difficult to implement. Successful multiple use of forests that includes the exploitation of forest wildlife has been well-documented in temperate regions. It should prove equally applicable to humid tropical regions. Natural grassland can simultaneously support livestock and wild animals, such as the capybara. Certain fisheries can also be managed in association with the management of some valuable wildlife species.

Biological Pest Control

Often both vertebrates and invertebrates are economically indispensable in reducing pest damage in forest plantations, grasslands, and cultivated fields. Insects, bats and birds which eat insects and snakes can control noxious rodents in agricultural areas. Further, crocodiles, which rarely attack humans, actively prey on piranha, which are notably dangerous to animals and man throughout Amazonia.

Utilizing the Ecotone Effect

As ecotones produce more than the ecosystems that form them, they have considerable wildlife potential. The most productive natural ecotones occur along the shorelines of water courses and the boundaries of swamps and seasonally-flooded areas. Human activity, particularly agriculture and livestock operations, creates other ecotones. These include cultivated field-forest, grassland-cultivated field, and grassland-forest ecotones, as well as ecotones formed by all of these environments with secondary herbaceous, shrubby, and forest environments.

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