Problems related to the over-exploitation of natural resources

The overexploitation of natural resources is one of the major environmental problems in the SJRB. It results from the combination of economic, social, and institutional factors. These problems arise from the overexploitation of species with a high commercial value, without taking into account the breeding periods, size and population of the species, and/or their appropriate use, as in the case of the land. Table 7 of Annex 3 shows the main threats to biodiversity and presents specific recommendations for addressing them. These threats result in reductions in the populations of flora and fauna below viable levels sometimes and below commercial levels at times. This has considerable transboundary effect, because the species know no borders and are exploited in both Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Although the SJRB has been fished for long time, and mostly in ecological equilibrium with the existing populations, signs that the balance is being undermined are surfacing and reducing both the number and biological diversity of the species.

Subsistence fishing predominated for a long time, but now is being combined with commercial fishing. There are now markets for different fresh water and salt water species in both Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Although poorly regulated, there are certain regulations governing fishing in the San Juan River, such as prohibitions on the use of trammel nets. Few data have been collected on the techniques used in the marine environment. Fishing in this basin has been artisanal and indiscriminate, with no knowledge of the renewal capacity of species. Both in the rivers and in the coastal marine areas, fishing is carried out with no awareness of population dynamics, there is little institutional presence in the zone, and specialized techniques are hardly used. This is due to the lack of institutional resources to supervise the proper use of fishing resources, in terms of the cultural, geographic, and historical aspects. In both countries, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, there is little supervision of the coastal marine zone, resulting in anarchic situations in fisheries in both countries. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that there are few studies on the population dynamics of the various species with economic value to the people living in the zone.

In the case of turtles, the regulations include, for example, limiting the number of individuals that can fish them per year. But these figures are not respected and there are always fishermen who evade the authorities to obtain their catch. Despite the existence of specific prohibitions to prevent the marketing of turtles and their parts, these are sold quite freely on local markets, creating a culture of consumption of this type of food.

Owing to the lack of control and police presence, situations arise that threaten the safety of fishermen, who in some cases are victims of robberies of equipment, such as trammel nets, electronic floats, etc. Foreign craft take advantage of this situation to fish without the necessary permits. Inappropriate fishing techniques are used specifically in Barra del Colorado, Tortuguero, the upper basin of the San Juan River, Solentiname, Guatusos, the Frío River and the entire coastal zone of the basin. The main species subject to overexploitation are lobsters, fresh water shrimp, guapote, shad, sea bass, gaspar, alligators, manatees, green and carey turtles—though some regulations have been established for the hunting and exploitation of the latter. Sharks and swordfish are endangered species in the waters of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan River, as a result of trammel net fishing in the Colorado River, which prevents them from reaching Lake Nicaragua from the Caribbean Sea via the San Juan River. The areas where this problem is particularly acute vary depending on the species, since each species is observed in its own habitat. For example, the swordfish is fished in Barra del Colorado, at the mouth of the San Juan and the Ometepe; crocodiles are found in Barra del Colorado; sharks in Barra del Colorado, the mouth of the San Juan River, Ometepe and Zapatera. Green turtles are found on the Continental Shelf and in Tortuguero. Shads are fished in Caño Negro, Ometepe, the Frío and Sábalos rivers; sea bass is fished in Barra del Colorado, Tortuguero, and the Pocosol River.

The coasts of both countries in the sector covered by the project are for the most part under some kind of protective regime, though these areas do not include the marine zone per se. As a tentative solution, one might consider breeding in captivity species like the turtle and alligator, for subsequent release into the wild. Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) and paca (Agouti paca) are being bred in captivity commercially in some areas of the SJRB, thereby relieving the pressure on their natural environment. Some habitats have been reconstructed, such as that of the red lapa, which is being reared with a view to releasing specimens. It is also necessary to conduct research on the population dynamics of species with economic value and to regulate their exploitation. However, nothing will come of this unless the communities become actively involved in solving the problem.

Like aquatic fauna, land-dwelling wildlife is under threat in most of the basin, with the exception of some protected areas that are properly supervised. Part of the problem can be attributed to the destruction and degradation of habitats. Table 8 shows a list of some of the species largely present in the SJRB. Table 9 shows the protected areas of the basin together and their main permitted uses. Table 10 and Table 11 show the protected areas of the SJRB, indicating which ones are in Costa Rican or Nicaraguan territory.

Hunting is a problem everywhere in the basin, mainly in the rural areas, in the mountains, and even in some protected areas. It is practiced without any knowledge of the population dynamics of wildlife. There are hunting bans or periods of protection for some species, which are often not respected by hunters. Some birds like the lapas are protected, as are the almond trees in which they nest. Even so, they are still the prey of hunters, who traffic in wild species, particularly in Pococí and San Carlos (Costa Rica). In Nicaragua, different types of birds are also hunted to be kept in captivity and marketed. Trafficking in wildlife species is common in the basin. The respective authorities try to curtail such trafficking, but the persons responsible for such acts evade the law and sell the wildlife for pets, consumption, or for their feathers and skins.

The transboundary effect becomes one in which the basin’s wildlife in general is being depleted for a number of reasons, with the resulting impoverishment of the species making up the ecosystem and the quality of life of the inhabitants. This is the case of the lapas, turtles, manatees, etc. Some of the possible solutions are environmental education to encourage consumption of species reared on farms; studies of population dynamics and hunting using scientific knowledge; imposition of sanctions on persons trading or trafficking in wild animals; proper supervision of protected areas and the economic resources to ensure effective supervision.

Regarding forestry resources, throughout the SJRB this resource has been overexploited for various reasons, from plowing mountains for agriculture and livestock farming, to the felling of timber and firewood as a useful resource. The extraction of timber is the start of a series of problems, such as the opening of roads through virgin forest, noise, pressure on plant and animal resources, and the subsequent establishment of agricultural and human settlements. When these situations arise, habitats are fragmented and some species do not survive.

In the institutional environment, the problem is that, despite the proliferation of legislation on natural, forestry, and environmental resources existing in both countries, few laws are implemented or have effective enforcement mechanisms due to the lack of economic and financial resources. In Nicaragua, forest mass is reduced by 150,000 hectares every year. According to recent data, deforestation in Costa Rica is running at 18,500 hectares per year. This pressure is mainly a result of the increased demand for timber for industry and energy production, the expansion of agriculture and livestock, and the establishment of human settlements. The supply of cut wood in the project area is shown in Table 12. Similarly, Tables 13 through 14 show the demand for cut wood for industrial purposes in the Nicaraguan and Costa Rican sectors of the basin, respectively.

In terms of dendroenergy, in Nicaragua, 2.5 times more wood is used for firewood than for industry. In 1991, 35% of the national territory suffered a deficit in the supply of firewood, facing situations qualified as extremely critical. In Costa Rica, the situation is not as critical because there are other sources of power, such as hydroenergy, which cover 90% of the demand. Notwithstanding, in rural areas, 37% of households use firewood as a source of energy.

The main areas where precious woods are exploited are in the settlements in IDA, Boca de Sábalos, the border zones, and Camastro. The energy-producing woods are consumed in the upper part of the basin and the banks of the San Juan River. The demand for wood poses a transboundary problem in that some Costa Rican businessmen go to Nicaragua to buy cheap wood and bring it into Costa Rica illegally. Owing to the lack of research on forest species and their exploitation techniques, forest use has been chaotic for nature. Only a few years ago was some attempt made to establish order in the forestry sector, but the task has been arduous for a number of reasons.

In accordance with the current legislation, forestry exploitation requires a forest management plan. Most forestry ventures do have this, despite the numerous requirements. However, the irregularities practiced are difficult to control. Tables 15 and 16 of Annex 3 show the installed capacity actually used in the timber industry in Nicaragua and Costa Rica, respectively, while 17 and 18 set out the annual supply of wood under conditions of sustainable exploitation, by type of forest. Both in Costa Rica and in Nicaragua, there are standards, constitutional mandates, and laws that regulate the exploitation of forestry resources. That notwithstanding, incorrect practices continue to be employed throughout the SJRB, including deforestation and changes in land use. In Costa Rica, deforestation in the basin has diminished due to the scarcity of forests outside the protected areas. By contrast, in the Nicaraguan part of the basin, there are still extensive wooded areas subject to exploitation and degradation. The San Juan River is an excellent medium of transport for logs, hence the latent danger of increased deforestation of the woods on the Nicaraguan side of the basin. Table 19 of Annex 3 shows the types of woods existing in the SJRB.

Inappropriate techniques include the elimination of natural forests (changes in use), inefficient forest use, and ignorance of the potential of the forest. The institutional reality is such that loggers have very little incentives to exploit the forest rationally. At the same time, the lack of economic resources to regulate this activity makes the task a complicated one to solve, with the resulting reduction and degradation of forestry resources. The areas most sensitive to or affected by this problem are Sábalo-Santa Cruz, the upper part of the Tule River and the Camastro River, the inaccessible mountainous areas of the basin. The impact on the water system is considerable, including sedimentation, erosion, and the loss of hydrological potential of the forest. The effects are also clearly transboundary because they occur and are evident in both countries.

The lack of planning and budget for the efficient construction of highways and roads—which are sometimes built on an empirical basis—has negative consequences for the environment and for the population in general. Many of the roads are built on paths, tracks, or animal trails, which are usually unsuitable for vehicular traffic. This makes the environmental impact even worse. A significant amount of the sediment going into the rivers comes from these roads, which are regularly washed by the rain, thereby polluting the rivers. Such informal roadways also lead to disorderly settlement of the basin. This problem is widespread throughout the SJRB, especially in the wetland zones and in the Tortuguero National Park.

Lake Nicaragua is the main body of fresh water in the SJRB and the largest in the Central America Isthmus. It has a surface area of approximately 8,000 Km2, i.e., 21% of the project area. Its mouth at the source of the San Juan River has an average annual flow rate of 475 m³/sec. The second largest body of water in the SJRB is the San Juan River, which has an average flow rate of de 1,308 m³/sec at the mouth of the Sarapiquí River.

Four aquifers have been identified in the Nicaraguan sector of the SJRB, with an overall potential of about 994 MMC a year. The underground water potential in Costa Rican territory is estimated at 994 cubic hectometers. However, sufficient information is not available to determine the extent of the exploitation of this resource. This problem is reflected more in its quality than its quantity, because the resource is being used as a recipient of municipal and industrial wastewater and solid waste, pesticide- and fertilizer-laden sediment, and mainly organic material.

Regarding underground water, the aquifers in the Nicaraguan sector of the basin are probably being overexploited, mainly for irrigation purposes. The most critical aquifers are those of Tipitapa-Malacatoya and Nandaime-Rivas. Care of the aquifers in the area under study is of major importance in maintaining an optimum quality of life and sustainable development in the area under study. Table 22 of Annex 3 shows the main characteristics of the aquifers on the Nicaraguan side of the study area.

Mining and extraction of construction materials is another factor that degrades the habitats in the basin. Although there are currently no major mining projects under way (the few identified sites are still in the exploration stages), there is the possibility that this type of activity could start up in the medium term on a scale that would involve serious damage to the landscape and ecosystems of the SJRB. The necessary precautions should therefore be taken from the project design stage, to prevent environmental damage.

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